Proteolytic inactivation of select proteins in bacterial extracts for improved expression

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure provides modified proteins that are capable of being cleaved by the protease OmpT1. The proteins can be modified in an exposed surface motif to incorporate OmpT1 cleavage sites. Also provided are nucleic acids encoding the modified proteins, bacterial cells that express the modified proteins, and cell free synthesis systems containing modified RF1. The disclosure further provides methods for reducing the deleterious activity of a modified protein in a cell free synthesis system by contacting the modified protein with OmpT1. Also provided are methods for reducing RF1 competition at an amber codon in the cell free synthesis system, and methods for expressing a protein in the cell free synthesis system. The modified proteins of the invention can be used to increase the yield of proteins having non-natural amino acids incorporated at an amber codon.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present patent application claims benefit of priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 61/713,245, filed Oct. 12, 2012, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to cell free synthesis technology, and particularly to the proteolytic inactivation of select proteins in a bacterial extract. A preferred use is to increase the yield of polypeptides having a non-native amino acid incorporated at a defined amino acid residue.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

The use of bacterial cell-free extracts for in vitro protein synthesis offers several advantages over conventional in vivo protein expression methods. Cell-free systems can direct most, if not all, of the metabolic resources of the cell towards the exclusive production of one protein. Moreover, the lack of a cell wall and membrane components in vitro is advantageous since it allows for control of the synthesis environment. However, the efficiency of cell-free extracts can be decreased by bacterial proteins that inhibit protein synthesis, either directly or indirectly. Thus, inactivation of undesirable proteins that decrease the efficiency of protein synthesis should increase the yield of desirable proteins in cell-free extracts. For example, the inactivation of proteins that decrease the efficiency of protein synthesis should increase the yield of polypeptides having non-native amino acids incorporated at a defined amino acid residue. The introduction of non-native amino acids (nnAA) into polypeptides is useful for increasing the biological diversity and function of proteins. One approach for producing polypeptides having a nnAA incoroporated at a defined amino acid residue is to use an nnAA, aminoacylated orthogonal CUA containing tRNA for introduction of the nnAA into the nascent polypeptide at an amber (stop) codon during protein translation. However, the incorporation of nnAA at an amber codon can be inhibited by the native bacterial termination complex, which normally recognizes the stop codon and terminates translation. Release Factor 1 (RF1) is a termination complex protein that facilitates the termination of translation by recognizing the amber codon in an mRNA sequence. RF1 recognition of the amber stop codon can promote pre-mature truncation products at the site of non-native amino acid incorporation, and thus decreased protein yield. Therefore, attenuating the activity of RF1 may increase nnAA incorporation into recombinant proteins.

It has previously been shown that nnAA incorporation can be increased by attenuating RF1 activity in 3 ways: 1) neutralizing antibody inactivation of RF1, 2) genomic knockout of RF1 (in an RF2 bolstered strain), and 3) site specific removal of RF1 using a strain engineered to express RF1 containing a protein tag for removal by affinity chromatography (Chitin Binding Domain and His Tag). The present disclosure describes a novel method for inactivating RF1 by introducing proteolytic cleavage sites into the RF1 amino acid sequence. The cleavage sites are not accessible to the protease during bacterial cell growth, but are cleaved by the protease when the bacterial cells are lysed to produce cell-free extract. Thus, the yield of full length polypeptides having a nnAA incorporated at an amber codon is increased in bacterial cell extracts expressing modified RF1 variants described herein.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides recombinant target proteins that are modified to comprise an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1) protease cleavage site. The OmpT1 cleavage site includes a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond. In some embodiments, the target protein is modified to introduce the OmpT1 cleavage site into a surface exposed motif of the target protein. Because OmpT1 cleaves substrates between dibasic residues with high efficiency, the native surface exposed motif is modified to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0. The target protein can be an essential protein that is required, for example, for normal cell growth and/or survival.

In some embodiments, the surface exposed motif has a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the motif region of the protein is uncomplexed. In some embodiments, surface exposed motif has a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². In some embodiments, the target protein is modified such that the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot.

In one aspect, the invention provides a bacterial cell expressing both OmpT1 and an essential target protein recombinantly modified to include a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond. In some embodiments, the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located within a surface exposed motif and the native motif is modified to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0. In some embodiments, the bacterial cell expresses an essential target protein recombinantly modified to include a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond where the bond is in a position of the protein which is located within a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the protein is uncomplexed. In some embodiments, the bacterial cell expresses an essential target protein recombinantly modified to include a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond where the bond is in a position of the protein which is located within a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². In one embodiment, the bacterial cell expresses an essential target protein recombinantly modified to include a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond where the bond is in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot. In one embodiment, the bacterial cell is an E. coli.

In some embodiments, the essential target protein is selected from RF1, RF2, RNAse, thioredoxin reductase, glutarodoxin reductase, glutathione reductase, amino acid degrading enzymes, polyphosphate kinase, or cold shock proteins.

In a second aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing the deleterious activity of a modified essential target protein in an in vitro cell free synthesis system, the method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i) culturing an OmpT1 positive bacteria expressing the modified         essential target protein said protein modified to include a         scissile OmptT1 peptide bond where the protein is modified to         include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively         charged at pH 7.0;     -   ii) lysing the bacteria to create a cell free synthesis extract;     -   iii) contacting the essential target protein with OmpT1 in an         amount sufficient to reduce intact protein by 50%;     -   iv) adding a nucleic acid template to the extract where the         template codes for a protein of interest; and,     -   v) allowing the cell free synthesis system to produce the         protein of interest.

In some embodiments of the method, the scissile OmptT1 peptide bond is located within a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the protein is uncomplexed. In some embodiments, the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located within a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². In some embodiments, the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot.

In some embodiments of the method, the oxidative phosphorylation system of the bacteria remains active after cell lysis and during the synthesis of the protein of interest. In one embodiment, the cell free synthesis system places a non-native amino acid at an amber codon of the protein of interest.

In a third aspect, the invention provides a functional Releasing Factor 1 protein (RF1) that is cleavable by an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1), where a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located within the switch loop region corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) and where the switch loop region is modified to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0. In some embodiments, the two adjacent basic amino acids are independently selected from arginine and lysine. In other embodiments, the switch loop region is modified to have three adjacent basic amino acids. In some embodiments, the native asparagine at position 296 is substituted for one of the three adjacent basic amino acids. The functional, modified RF1 protein is cleaved by OmpT1 at a faster rate than the wild-type RF1. For example, in one embodiment, the cleavage activity of modified RF1 by OmpT1 is greater than 50% of the wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) after 30 minutes at 30° C. when the modified and wild-type proteins are present at a similar concentration in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1.

In some embodiments, the functional RF1 that is cleavable by OmpT1 contains an OmpT1 cleavage peptide in the switch loop region.

In a fourth aspect, the invention provides a nucleic acid encoding a functional Releasing Factor 1 protein (RF1) that is cleavable by an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1) where a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located within the switch loop region of RF1 corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) and where the switch loop region is modified to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0.

In a fifth aspect, the invention provides a method for reducing RF1 competition at an amber codon in an in vitro cell free synthesis system, the method comprising the steps of:

-   -   i) culturing an OmpT1 positive bacteria expressing a functional         Releasing Factor 1 protein (RF1) that is cleavable by an Outer         Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1)     -   ii) lysing the bacteria to create a cell free synthesis extract;     -   iii) contacting the RF1 protein in the extract with OmpT1 in an         amount to sufficient to reduce intact RF1 protein by 50%;     -   iv) adding a nucleic acid template to the extract where the         template codes for a protein of interest and includes an amber         codon; and,     -   v) allowing the cell free synthesis system to produce the         protein of interest,     -   where the RF1 protein has a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is         located within the switch loop region corresponding to amino         acids 287-304 of wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) and where the         switch loop region is modified to include two adjacent basic         amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0.

In one embodiment of the method, the OmpT1 positive bacteria is from E. coli. In some embodiments, the oxidative phosphorylation system of the bacteria remains active after cell lysis and during the synthesis of the protein of interest. In other embodiments, the cell free synthesis system places a non-native amino acid at the amber codon of the protein of interest.

In another aspect, the invention provides a cell free synthesis system comprising, in a single reaction mixture:

-   -   i) components from a bacterial lysate sufficient to translate a         nucleic acid template encoding a protein;     -   ii) a nucleic acid template encoding a protein of interest and         having at least one amber codon;     -   iii) tRNA complementary to the amber codon; and,     -   iv) a functional Releasing Factor 1 (RF1) protein cleavable by         an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1), where a scissile OmpT1         peptide bond is located within the switch loop region of RF1         corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of wild type RF1 (SEQ ID         NO:1) and where the switch loop region is modified to include         two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH         7.0.

In some embodiments, the cell free synthesis system reaction mixture further comprises a non-natural amino acid and corresponding amino acid synthetase, the synthetase able to charge the tRNA complimentary to the amber codon with the non-natural amino acid. In some embodiments, the cell free synthesis system generates ATP via an active oxidative phosphorylation system.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method for expressing protein in a cell-free synthesis system, comprising:

-   -   i. combining a nucleic acid template with a bacterial extract         comprising an RF1 protein that has been cleaved by OmpT1 at a         scissile OmpT1 peptide bond located within the switch loop         region corresponding to amino acids 287-303 of wild type RF1         (SEQ ID NO:1) and where the switch loop region has been modified         to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively         charged at pH 7.0 under conditions that permit protein         synthesis; and     -   ii. expressing a protein from the nucleic acid template.

In another aspect, the invention provides a bacterial cell comprising a genomically integrated sequence coding for a functional RF1 that is cleavable by OmpT1.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows that modified RF1 protein variants containing OmpT cleavage sites have wild-type RF1 activity when added to cell-free extracts lacking OmpT activity. The ability of exogenous RF-1 variants to reduce suppression (increase chain termination) when adding a non-native amino acid at an amber codon introduced at position S378 of the Fc protein (Fc_S378TAG) was determined. FIG. 1(A) Lane 1 is a control extract with no exogenously added RF1. The extract contains wild-type RF1, which results in reduced amber suppression, producing a truncated Fc (lower band in gel). Lane 2 is a control extract containing exogenously added wild-type (WT) RF1. The addition of wild-type RF1 results in a further reduction in amber suppression, which produces relatively more truncated Fc. Lanes 3-7 show cell-free extracts containing different RF1 variants of the invention. All five variants possess RF1 activity. FIG. 1(B) shows the relative activity of RF1 variants, where added WT RF1 activity is set at 100 percent, and no added RF1 is set at zero percent.

FIG. 2 shows that cell-free extracts from a bacterial strain engineered to express a modified RF1 variant (A18) produce a substantial increase in the yield of full-length IgG when nnAA were introduced at various positions of heavy chain, as compared to a bacterial strain expressing a wild-type RF1. 2(A) left panel: SBJY001 extract, containing intact OmpT and wild-type RF1. 2(A) right panel: SBHS016 extract (strain 16), containing intact OmpT and RF1 variant A18. The band intensity of full-length (intact) IgG is stronger in strain 16 extract, indicating the incorporation of nnAA was substantially increased, with a decrease in truncated proteins. 2(B) shows the IgG soluble yield of proteins containing a nnAA at the indicated positions of heavy chain is substantially increased in strain 16 extract, indicating that OmpT cleavage of RF1 variant A18 results in less truncated heavy chain. “RF1+” (RF1 positive) extract refers to RF1 from strain 001 that is not cleaved by OmpT. “RF1−” (RF1 negative) extract refers to RF1 from strain 16 that is modified to include OmpT cleavage sites, and is thus degraded by OmpT activity.

FIG. 3 shows that cell-free extracts from a bacterial strain engineered to express a modified RF1 variant (A18) produce a substantial increase in amber suppression corresponding to increased incorporation of nnAA at the indicated positions of heavy chain. 3(A) left panel: SBJY001 extract, containing intact OmpT and wild-type RF1. 3(A) right panel: SBHS016 (strain 16) extract, containing intact OmpT and RF1 variant A18. The band intensity of full-length (intact) heavy chain (Hc) is stronger in strain 16 extract, indicating the incorporation of nnAA was substantially increased, with a decrease in truncated proteins. 3(B) shows amber suppression of proteins containing a nnAA at the indicated positions of heavy chain is substantially increased in strain 16 extract, indicating that OmpT cleavage of RF1 variant A18 results in increased amber suppression. “RF1+” (RF1 positive) extract refers to RF1 from strain 001 that is not cleaved by OmpT. “RF1−” (RF1 negative) extract refers to RF1 from strain 16 that is modified to include OmpT cleavage sites, and is thus degraded by OmpT activity.

DEFINITIONS

“Aminoacylation” or “aminoacylate” refers to the complete process in which a tRNA is “charged” with its correct amino acid that is a result of adding an aminoacyl group to a compound. As it pertains to this invention, a tRNA that undergoes aminoacylation or has been aminoacylated is one that has been charged with an amino acid, and an amino acid that undergoes aminoacylation or has been aminoacylated is one that has been charged to a tRNA molecule.

“Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase” or “tRNA synthetase” or “synthetase” or “aaRS” or “RS” refers to an enzyme that catalyzes a covalent linkage between an amino acid and a tRNA molecule. This results in a “charged” tRNA molecule, which is a tRNA molecule that has its respective amino acid attached via an ester bond.

“Codon” refers to a group of 3 consecutive nucleotides in a nucleic acid template that specify a particular naturally occurring amino acid, non-native amino acid, or translation stop (polypeptide chain termination) signal. Due to the degeneracy of the genetic code, an amino acid can be specified by more than one codon.

An amber codon is a polypeptide chain-termination sequence (UAG) in RNA (TAG in DNA) that acts to terminate polypeptide translation in most organisms. The amber codon can also encode the proteinogenic amino acid pyrrolysine if the appropriate tRNA is charged by its cognate aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase.

“Amber codon tRNA” or “amber suppressor tRNA” or “amber anti-codon tRNA” refers to a tRNA that binds to an amber codon.

“Adjacent amino acids” refers to amino acids that immediately precede or follow each other in the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. For example, the amino acid at position two of a polypeptide's primary amino acid sequence is adjacent to amino acids at positions one and three. “Two adjacent basic amino acids” refers to one basic amino acid that immediately precedes or follows another basic amino acid in the primary amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. For example, the basic amino acid Arg (R) at position 295 of the RF1 amino acid sequence can be adjacent to a basic amino acid such as K or R introduced at position 296 of the RF1 amino acid sequence.

“Bacterial derived cell free extract” refers to preparation of in vitro reaction mixtures able to translate mRNA into polypeptides. The mixtures include ribosomes, ATP, amino acids, and tRNAs. They may be derived directly from lysed bacteria, from purified components or combinations of both.

“Basic amino acids” are polar and positively charged at pH values below their pK_(a)'s, and are very hydrophilic. Examples of basic amino acids at neutral pH include Arginine (Arg=R), Lysine (Lys=K), and Histidine (His=H).

“Cell-free synthesis system” refers to the in vitro synthesis of polypeptides in a reaction mix comprising biological extracts and/or defined reagents. The reaction mix will comprise a template for production of the macromolecule, e.g. DNA, mRNA, etc.; monomers for the macromolecule to be synthesized, e.g. amino acids, nucleotides, etc.; and co-factors, enzymes and other reagents that are necessary for the synthesis, e.g. ribosomes, uncharged tRNAs, tRNAs charged with unnatural amino acids, polymerases, transcriptional factors, etc.

The term “cleavage activity is greater than 50% of the wild type RF1” refers to the cleavage rate of a modified protein described herein being greater than 50% of the cleavage rate of wild-type protein under specified conditions. For example, the cleavage rate can be greater than 50% of the cleavage rate of wild-type protein after 30 minutes at 30° C. when the modified and wild-type proteins are present at a similar concentration (e.g., a concentration of 0.1-1.0 micromolar) in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1.

The term “deleterious activity” refers to an activity that decreases the yield of proteins during protein synthesis in cell free extracts. For example, the deleterious activity can inhibit cellular transcription and/or translation in cell free synthesis systems. The deleterious activity can include enzymatic reduction of GSSG that is required for efficient protein folding of disulfide bonded proteins produced in a cell-free synthesis reaction. The deleterious activity can also include premature chain termination by a releasing factor, such that polypeptide elongation is prematurely terminated at an introduced stop codon.

A “target protein” is a protein that has been modified to include a protease cleavage site, or a protein that is modified to include a nnAA. An “essential target protein” is a protein that is required for normal growth and/or survival of a cell, such as a bacterial cell or eukaryotic cell.

A “functional Releasing Factor 1 (RF1) protein” refers to RF1 that retains activity equal to or substantially similar to wild-type or unmodified RF1 protein. Functional RF1 activity can be tested, for example, by measuring the growth rate of bacteria expressing the modified RF1 protein, and comparing the growth rate to bacteria expressing wild-type or unmodified RF1. The functional activity of other proteins modified to contain OmpT cleavage sites can be similarly determined, for example, by measuring the growth rate of bacteria expressing the modified protein, and comparing the growth rate to bacteria expressing wild-type or unmodified protein. Functional RF1 activity can also be tested, for example, by the ability of the modified RF1 protein to reduce orthogonal tRNA incorporation of a nnAA at a specified position in an mRNA encoding a target protein, thereby increasing the amount of premature chain termination (i.e., increasing the amount of truncated protein).

The term “modified to include” in the context of the present invention refers to amino acid substitutions, additions, or deletions in a protein or polypeptide sequence, or the corresponding substitutions, additions, or deletions in a nucleic acid sequence that encodes the modified protein. The modified protein can include amino acid substitutions that replace an equal number of amino acids from the wild-type protein sequence, amino acids added to the wild-type sequence, or amino acids deleted from the wild-type sequence. For example, the protein can be modified to include basic amino acids that replace the wild-type amino acid(s) at the corresponding position in the amino acid sequence. The protein can also be modified to include amino acid sequences that are known protease cleavage sequences, such as OmpT cleavage sequences.

“Non-natural” or “non-native” amino acid refers to amino acids that are not one of the twenty naturally occurring amino acids that are the building blocks for all proteins that are nonetheless capable of being biologically engineered such that they are incorporated into proteins. Non-native amino acids may include D-peptide enantiomers or any post-translational modifications of one of the twenty naturally occurring amino acids. A wide variety of non-native amino acids can be used in the methods of the invention. The non-native amino acid can be chosen based on desired characteristics of the non-native amino acid, e.g., function of the non-native amino acid, such as modifying protein biological properties such as toxicity, biodistribution, or half-life, structural properties, spectroscopic properties, chemical and/or photochemical properties, catalytic properties, ability to react with other molecules (either covalently or noncovalently), or the like. Non-native amino acids that can be used in the methods of the invention may include, but are not limited to, an non-native analogue of a tyrosine amino acid; an non-native analog of a glutamine amino acid; an non-native analog of a phenylalanine amino acid; an non-native analog of a serine amino acid; an non-native analog of a threonine amino acid; an alkyl, aryl, acyl, azido, cyano, halo, hydrazine, hydrazide, hydroxyl, alkenyl, alkynl, ether, thiol, sulfonyl, seleno, ester, thioacid, borate, boronate, phospho, phosphono, phosphine, heterocyclic, enone, imine, aldehyde, hydroxylamine, keto, or amino substituted amino acid, or any combination thereof; an amino acid with a photoactivatable cross-linker; a spin-labeled amino acid; a fluorescent amino acid; an amino acid with a novel functional group; an amino acid that covalently or noncovalently interacts with another molecule; a metal binding amino acid; a metal-containing amino acid; a radioactive amino acid; a photocaged and/or photoisomerizable amino acid; a biotin or biotin-analog containing amino acid; a glycosylated or carbohydrate modified amino acid; a keto containing amino acid; amino acids comprising polyethylene glycol or polyether; a heavy atom substituted amino acid; a chemically cleavable or photocleavable amino acid; an amino acid with an elongated side chain; an amino acid containing a toxic group; a sugar substituted amino acid, e.g., a sugar substituted serine or the like; a carbon-linked sugar-containing amino acid, e.g., a sugar substituted serine or the like; a carbon-linked sugar-containing amino acid; a redox-active amino acid; an alpha-hydroxy containing acid; an amino thio acid containing amino acid; an alpha,alpha-disubstituted amino acid; a beta-amino acid; a cyclic amino acid other than praline, etc.

“Nucleic acid template” includes a DNA or RNA polynucleotide from which a polypeptide will be translated. It will be understood by those of skill in the art that a DNA nucleic acid template must first be transcribed into RNA, and that the RNA is translated into a polypeptide. DNA can be transcribed into RNA either in vivo or in vitro. The methods of in vitro transcription of a DNA template are well known in the art. In some embodiments, the DNA template is subject to simultaneous in vitro transcription and translation.

“Outer Membrane Protein T1” (OmpT1) is a surface membrane serine protease and belongs to the omptin family of gram-negative bacteria. OmpT1 is known to cleave antimicrobial peptides, activate human plasminogen, and degrade some heterologous recombinant proteins. OmpT1 and its homologs cleave synthetic substrates between dibasic residues with high catalytic efficiency. The cleavage of sequences containing dibasic residues has been shown to be important for the inactivation of antibiotic peptides and colicins, the proteolysis of bacterial membrane proteins in trans, and the degradation of recombinant proteins expressed E. coli. In the context of this invention, OmpT1 has certain advantages in that it is located on the outer membrane of the cell, and thus is not in contact with potential substrate proteins that are located inside the intact bacterial cell.

The term “oxidative phosphorylation system of the bacteria remains active” refers to a bacterial lysate that exhibits active oxidative phosphorylation during protein synthesis. For example, the bacterial lysate can generate ATP using ATP synthase enzymes and reduction of oxygen. It will be understood that other translation systems known in the art can also use an active oxidative phosphorylation during protein synthesis. The activation of oxidative phosphorylation can be demonstrated by inhibition of the pathway using specific inhibitors, such as electron transport chain inhibitors.

“Translation” refers to the process whereby an RNA template is converted into a polypeptide containing natural and/or non-native amino acids, and is well known in the art. Translation involves the initiation step, whereby a ribosome attaches to the RNA template, generally at the FMet codon (e.g., AUG), and the elongation step, whereby the anticodon of a charged tRNA molecule is paired with a codon in the RNA template, this step being repeated as the ribosome moves down the RNA template. As each tRNA anticodon is paired with its corresponding codon, the amino group of the amino acid charged to each tRNA molecule is covalently linked to the carboxyl group of the preceding amino acid via peptide bonds. Generally, translation also involves the termination step, whereby the ribosome encounters a translation stop codon, thus ending chain elongation and release of the polypeptide from the ribosome. However, in the methods described herein, the RNA template can comprise an ORF having an amber stop codon UAG, which is recognized by the anti-codon CUA of a tRNA charged with a nnAA. Therefore, in the present methods, the amber codon does not necessarily function to terminate translation.

“Translation system” refers to a mixture of components that is able to translate mRNA into polypeptides in vitro. A translation system can be a cell free extract, reconstituted cell lysate, or a purified mixture of components that is able to translate mRNA into polypeptides in vitro. For example, the cell free extract or cell lysate used in the methods described herein can be derived from Escherichia coli (E. coli). The translation system can also comprise a purified and reconstituted in vitro translation system. The methods described herein can also utilize a translation system that exhibits active oxidative phosphorylation during protein synthesis. For example, the translation system can generate ATP using ATP synthetase enzymes. The translation system can also comprise at least one nucleic acid template. The nucleic acid template can be simultaneously transcribed and translated into protein using the translation system.

“Reconstituted ribosomal translation system” refers to a mixture of purified components which is capable of translating a nucleic acid molecule such as mRNA in vitro, as described in Tan et al., Methods 36, 279-290 (2005), and Forster et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,977,150, which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

A “scissile OmpT1 peptide bond” is a peptide bond that is capable of being cleaved by OmpT1.

A “surface exposed motif” is a domain that is present on the outside of a protein molecule. Surface exposed motifs are generally more accessible to proteolytic cleavage, for example by a serine protease such as OmpT1. One of skill in the art would understand that a surface exposed motif can be defined in several ways. For example, a surface exposed motif often lacks secondary structure, such as alpha helix or beta sheet. Further, surface exposed motifs often do not share a significant amount of amino acid sequence homology, even between homologous protein sequences. However, one of skill in the art can calculate relative surface accessible area for regions of a protein of interest using the GetArea algorithm embedded in pymol molecular modeling software (See the internet at pymolwiki.org/index.php/Get_Area).

A “surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å²” refers to the mobility of individual atoms in the surface exposed motif Atoms in surface exposed motifs can have more mobility than atoms in the core of a protein. B-factors generally indicate the relative vibrational motion of different parts of a structure, such as a protein. Atoms with low B-factors belong to a part of the protein that is well-ordered and thus have relatively low mobility. Atoms with large B-factors generally belong to part of the protein that is relatively flexible, and thus have relatively high mobility. The higher the B-factor, the more likely that positional errors of an individual atom in a protein structure will be observed. For example, a B factor of between 40 and 60 suggests that positional errors up to 1.0 Ångstrom can be observed. A B-factor of greater than 60 suggests that the atom is not likely to be within 1.0 Ångstrom of its observed position. (See, e.g., the internet at wiki.cmbi.ru.nl/index.php/B-factor). The B-factor is calculated as:

B _(i)=8π² U _(i) ²

where U_(i) ² is the mean square displacement of atom i. This produces a weighting factor on the contribution of atom i to the Fourier transform by:

$\exp \left( {{- B_{j}}\frac{\sin^{2}\Theta}{\lambda^{2}}} \right)$

As U increases, B increases and the contribution of the atom to the scattering is decreased. See, e.g., the internet at:

-   pldserver1.biochem.queensu.ca/˜rlc/work/teaching/definitions.shtml.     The B-factor is measured in units of Å².

The term “Ramachandran Plot” refers to a method for visualizing backbone dihedral angles ψ (Psi) versus φ (Phi) for each amino acid residue in a protein structure. Methods for calculating Phi and Psi angles are described, e.g., in Lovell, S. C. et al., Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics, 50:437-450 (2003), and Chen, V. B. et al., MolProbity: all-atom structure validation for macromolecular crystallography, Acta Crystallographica D66: 12-21 (2010). One can determine the Phi and Psi angles in a Ramachandran plot by referring to the above references, or, for convenience, one can use software programs freely available on the internet. For example, one can upload a coordinate file or a PDB file to the MOLPROBITY server at kinemage.biochem.duke.edu (see Chen, V. B. et al., supra). Alternatively, one can use the Ramachandran Plot Explorer available on the internet at boscoh.com/ramaplot.

The term “total solvent accessible surface area” (SASA) refers to the surface area of a protein or polypeptide that is accessible to a solvent. Solvent accessible surface area can be described in units of square ångstroms, and can be calculated using the ‘rolling ball’ algorithm developed by Shrake & Rupley (Shrake, A; Rupley, J A. (1973). “Environment and exposure to solvent of protein atoms. Lysozyme and insulin”. J Mol Biol 79 (2): 351-71.). Solvent accessible surface area can also be calculated as described in Fraczkiewicz, R. and Braun, W., “Exact and efficient analytical calculation of the accessible surface areas and their gradients for macromolecules,” J. Comp. Chem., 19:319-333 (1998). For convenience, one can calculate total solvent accessible surface area using software programs freely available on the internet. For example, one can use the software routine GETAREA found at the University of Texas Medical Branch website curie.utmb.edu/getarea.html to calculate solvent accessible surface area (solvation energy) of a protein molecule, as described in Fraczkiewicz, R. and Braun, W. (Id), by entering atomic coordinates in PDB (protein database) format, and specifying the desired radius of the water probe (parameters: radius of the water probe=1.4).

The term “switch loop region” refers to a surface exposed motif that links domains three and four of RF1 and forms a rigid connection that places the GGQ motif of domain 3 in contact with the peptidyl-tRNA ester linkage in the peptidyl transferase center (PTC) of the 50S subunit. Recognition of the stop codon by the termination complex stabilizes a rearranged conformation of the switch loop region, which directs domain 3 into the PTC. Rearrangement of the switch loop results in reorientation and extension of helix α7 so that the GGQ motifs docks in the PTC. See, Korostelev, A. et al., “Recognition of the amber UAG stop codon by release factor RF1,” EMBO Journal (2010) 29, 2577-2585. The switch loop region of RF1 corresponds to amino acids 287 to 304 of SEQ ID NO:1, and comprises the following amino acid sequence: 287-QQAEASTRRNLLGSGDRS-304 (SEQ ID NO:4).

A “wild-type” protein is an unmodified protein having the amino acid sequence and/or functional activity of a native or naturally occurring protein. For example, a wild-type RF1 protein can have the sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. A “control protein” can be a wild-type protein or a previously modified protein.

“Native amino acid” refers to one or more naturally occurring amino acids encoded by the genetic code. An “endogenous native amino acid” refers to a native amino acid produced by the host cells used to generate the lysate.

“Non-native amino acids” (“nnAA”) refers to chemical structures having the formula NH3-(CR)-COOH where R is not any of the 20 most common substituents defining the natural amino acids.

The terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of nucleotides or amino acid residues that are the same (e.g., 60% identity, optionally 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97% or 99% identity over a specified region), when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region, as measured using the BLAST and PSI-BLAST algorithms, which are described in Altschul et al. (J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-10, 1990), and Altschul, et al. (Nucleic Acids Res., 25:3389-3402, 1997), respectively. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information (see the internet at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al., supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a wordlength (W) of 11, an expectation (E) or 10, M=5, N=−4 and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a wordlength of 3, and expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff and Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915, 1989) alignments (B) of 50, expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands.

“Percentage of sequence identity” is determined by comparing two optimally aligned sequences over a comparison window, wherein the portion of the polynucleotide or polypeptide sequence in the comparison window may comprise additions or deletions (i.e., gaps) as compared to the reference sequence (which does not comprise additions or deletions) for optimal alignment of the two sequences. The percentage is calculated by determining the number of positions at which the identical nucleic acid base or amino acid residue occurs in both sequences to yield the number of matched positions, dividing the number of matched positions by the total number of positions in the window of comparison and multiplying the result by 100 to yield the percentage of sequence identity.

A “comparison window,” as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well known in the art.

The BLAST algorithm also performs a statistical analysis of the similarity between two sequences (see, e.g., Karlin and Altschul, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90:5873-87, 1993). One measure of similarity provided by the BLAST algorithm is the smallest sum probability (P(N)), which provides an indication of the probability by which a match between two nucleotide or amino acid sequences would occur by chance. For example, a nucleic acid is considered similar to a reference sequence if the smallest sum probability in a comparison of the test nucleic acid to the reference nucleic acid is less than about 0.2, typically less than about 0.01, and more typically less than about 0.001.

When percentage of sequence identity is used in reference to a polypeptide, it is recognized that one or more residue positions that are not otherwise identical can differ by a conservative amino acid substitution, in which a first amino acid residue is substituted for another amino acid residue having similar chemical properties such as a similar charge or hydrophobic or hydrophilic character and, therefore, does not change the functional properties of the polypeptide. Where polypeptide sequences differ in conservative substitutions, the percent sequence identity can be adjusted upwards to correct for the conservative nature of the substitution. Such an adjustment can be made using well-known methods, for example, scoring a conservative substitution as a partial rather than a full mismatch, thereby increasing the percentage sequence identity. Thus, for example, where an identical amino acid is given a score of 1 and a non-conservative substitution is given a score of zero, a conservative substitution is given a score between zero and 1. The scoring of conservative substitutions can be calculated using the algorithm described in Pearson et al. (Meth. Mol. Biol. 24:307-331, 1994). Alignment also can be performed by simple visual inspection and manual alignment of sequences.

The term “conservatively modified variation,” when used in reference to a particular polynucleotide sequence, refers to different polynucleotide sequences that encode identical or essentially identical amino acid sequences, or where the polynucleotide does not encode an amino acid sequence, to essentially identical sequences. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, a large number of functionally identical polynucleotides encode any given polypeptide. For instance, the codons CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, and AGG all encode the amino acid arginine. Thus, at every position where an arginine is specified by a codon, the codon can be altered to any of the corresponding codons described without altering the encoded polypeptide. Such nucleotide sequence variations are “silent variations,” which can be considered a species of “conservatively modified variations.” As such, it will be recognized that each polynucleotide sequence disclosed herein as encoding a protein variant also describes every possible silent variation. It will also be recognized that each codon in a polynucleotide, except AUG, which is ordinarily the only codon for methionine, and UUG, which is ordinarily the only codon for tryptophan, can be modified to yield a functionally identical molecule by standard techniques. Accordingly, each silent variation of a polynucleotide that does not change the sequence of the encoded polypeptide is implicitly described herein.

Furthermore, it will be recognized that individual substitutions, deletions or additions that alter, add or delete a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids (typically less than 10%, and generally less than 1%) in an encoded sequence can be considered conservatively modified variations, provided alteration results in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative amino acid substitutions providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art, including the following six groups, each of which contains amino acids that are considered conservative substitutes for each another:

-   -   1) Alanine (Ala, A), Serine (Ser, S), Threonine (Thr, T);     -   2) Aspartic acid (Asp, D), Glutamic acid (Glu, E);     -   3) Asparagine (Asn, N), Glutamine (Gln, Q);     -   4) Arginine (Arg, R), Lysine (Lys, K)     -   5) Isoleucine (Ile, I), Leucine (Leu, L), Methionine (Met, M),         Valine (Val, V); and     -   6) Phenylalanine (Phe, F), Tyrosine (Tyr, Y), Tryptophan (Trp,         W).

Two or more amino acid sequences or two or more nucleotide sequences are considered to be “substantially similar” if the amino acid sequences or the nucleotide sequences share at least 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% sequence identity with each other, or with a reference sequence over a given comparison window. Two or more proteins are also considered substantially similar if they incorporate conservative amino acid substitutions providing functionally similar amino acids into the amino acid sequence.

“Promoter” refers to sequence elements in the nucleic acid template located upstream or downstream from the start of transcription. Promoter sequences are involved in recognition and binding of RNA polymerase and other proteins that initiate transcription. Examples of promoters include T7, SP6 and T3 bacteriophage promoters.

“5′ untranslated region” refers to the nucleic acid sequence located upstream or 5′ of the open reading frame in a nucleic acid template. In RNA, the 5′ untranslated region precedes the translation start codon present in the nucleic acid template. In DNA, the 5′ untranslated region refers to nucleic acid sequences that are transcribed into RNA and are located 5′ to the translation start codon. In DNA, the translation start codon is typically ATG, and in RNA the translation start codon is typically AUG.

“Primary amino acid sequence” refers to the order of amino acid residues that are joined together by peptide bonds into a polypeptide. The order of amino acid residues is generally referenced starting at the amino terminal end of the polypeptide and proceeding to the carboxy terminal end of the polypeptide. The primary amino acid sequence is determined by the nucleotide sequence of RNA codons in the nucleic acid template.

“Open reading frame” refers to the nucleotide sequence of a nucleic acid template that is translated into a polypeptide of interest. As used herein, the open reading frame (ORF) can include at least one codon corresponding to a defined amino acid residue that binds to a tRNA charged with a nnAA. The at least one codon can be an amber codon.

“Isoaccepting sense tRNA” refers to different tRNA species that bind to alternate codons for the same amino acid.

“tRNA” or “transfer RNA” refers to a small RNA molecule that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. tRNAs contain a three base codon that pairs to the corresponding mRNA codon. As a result of the degeneracy of the genetic code, an amino acid can associate with multiple tRNAs, while each type of tRNA molecule can only associate with one type of amino acid.

The terms “polypeptide” and “protein” are used interchangeably, and refer to a compound containing two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds. Proteins can contain one or more polypeptide chains.

The term “when the protein is uncomplexed” refers to the structure of a protein in solution, or a portion, region or domain of the structure of the protein in solution, and not the structure of the protein, or portion, region or domain of the structure of the protein, when it is part of a complex with other molecules such as proteins, ligands, enzyme substrate or inhibitor complexes, ribosomes, bound antibodies or antibody fragments, RNA, and DNA. The term also refers to the structure of a protein domain, such as the amino acids comprising a surface exposed motif, that is in solution.

As used herein, the term “about,” when modifying any amount, refers to the variation in that amount typically encountered by one of skill in the art, e.g., in protein synthesis or X-ray crystallography experiments. For example, the term “about” refers to the normal variation encountered in measurements for a given analytical technique, both within and between batches or samples. Thus, the term about can include variation of 1-10% of the measured value, such as 5% or 10% variation. The amounts disclosed herein include equivalents to those amounts, including amounts modified or not modified by the term “about.”

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Introduction

The present invention provides target proteins that are recombinantly modified to include OmpT1 protease cleavage sites that are capable of being cleaved by OmpT1. The OmpT1 cleavage site includes a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond. In one embodiment, the target protein is modified to include two adjacent basic amino acids that are positively charged at pH 7.0. In some embodiments, the target protein is modified to introduce the OmpT1 cleavage site into a surface exposed motif of the target protein. In some embodiments, the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located in a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the protein or the surface exposed motif is uncomplexed (i.e., free in solution and/or not part of a macromolecular structure comprising other molecules). In some embodiments, the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located in a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area (SASA) of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². In some embodiments, the target protein is modified such that the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond is located in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot.

As is understood by one of skill in the art, the above embodiments require structural information for the protein domain(s) of interest. However, surface loops often are disordered, and therefore no crystal structure may be available for the target protein of interest. Thus, in some embodiments, a homology model can be made using similar structures to predict a SASA of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å², or a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot, in the absence of structural information.

The invention further provides a bacterial cell that express both OmpT1 and the recombinantly modified target protein. In some embodiments, the recombinantly modified target protein is an essential protein, for example, a protein that is required for normal cell growth and/or survival.

The target proteins described herein are selected because they have deleterious activity in an in vitro cell-free synthesis system. For example, the target protein can inhibit transcription and/or translation of nucleic acid templates that encode proteins of interest. Thus, the invention provides methods for reducing the deleterious activity of a modified essential target protein in an in vitro cell-free synthesis system by inactivating the target protein with an OmpT1 protease. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing an OmpT1 positive bacteria expressing the modified essential target protein, where the target protein is modified to include an OmpT1 cleavage site comprising a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond in a surface exposed motif; lysing the bacteria to create a cell free synthesis extract; contacting the modified essential target protein with OmpT1 in an amount sufficient to reduce the amount of intact target protein by 50%; adding a nucleic acid template to the extract, where the template codes for a protein of interest; and allowing the cell free synthesis system to produce the protein of interest. The method takes advantage of the spatial separation of the modified target protein and the OmpT1 protease during cell growth, when the target protein may be important for cell growth and/or survival, whereas the target protein is cleaved by OmpT1 when the bacterial cells are disrupted and lysed to produce a cell-free extract.

In some embodiments of the method, the scissile OmptT1 peptide bond is located within a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the protein or the surface exposed motif is uncomplexed. For example, the surface exposed motif can have a B factor of 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, or 200 Å² or greater, or can be in a range of between about 50 and about 200 Å², between about 50 and about 150 Å², between about 50 and about 100 Å², between about 60 and about 200 Å², between about 60 and about 150 Å², or between about 60 and about 100 Å². In some embodiments of the method, the scissile OmptT1 peptide bond is located within a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². For example, in some embodiments, the total solvent accessible surface area is about 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 210, 220, or 225 Å² (where the term “about” modifies each of the preceding values). In one embodiment of the method, the scissile OmptT1 peptide bond is located in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot. As described above, in the absence of structural information, a homology model can be made using similar structures to predict a SASA of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å², or a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot.

The proteins of interest referred to above include proteins that are engineered to incorporate non-native amino acids (nnAA) at a defined location of the amino acid sequence. The introduction of nnAA into proteins can result in proteins with preferred properties. One method for introducing nnAA into proteins or polypeptides of interest uses aminoacylated orthogonal tRNAs that recognize an amber (stop) codon for introducing the nnAA into the nascent polypeptide chain during protein translation. However, the yield of proteins having nnAA introduced therein can be decreased by proteins of the translation termination complex that facilitate the termination of translation by recognizing the termination or stop codons in an mRNA sequence. Release Factor 1 (RF1) is part of the termination complex, and recognizes the UAG (amber) stop codon. RF1 recognition of the amber codon can promote pre-mature chain termination at the site of nnAA incorporation, which reduces the yield of desired proteins. The methods described herein solve this problem by decreasing the functional activity of RF1 in bacterial cell lysates. Thus, in some embodiments, the essential target protein is RF1. The functional activity of RF1 is decreased by introducing OmpT1 protease cleavage sites into RF1. OmpT1 is an enzyme located on the outer cell membrane of intact bacteria. Thus, the modified RF1 is not available as a substrate for OmpT1 in intact cells. When the bacterial membrane is disrupted, for example, as in a bacterial lysate, the OmpT1 enzyme is able to contact and cleave the modified RF1 at the introduced cleavage site, thereby decreasing the functional activity of RF1. The methods are applicable to other releasing factors found in the translation termination complex, such as RF2, which recognizes the UGA stop codon. The methods are also applicable to proteins that degrade mRNA during in vitro translation, such as RNase enzymes. Further, the methods are generally applicable to any protein in a bacterial extract that inhibits transcription and/or translation of a protein of interest.

General Methods

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Practitioners are particularly directed to Green, M. R., and Sambrook, J., eds., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 4th ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (2012), and Ausubel, F. M., et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Supplement 99), John Wiley & Sons, New York (2012), which are incorporated herein by reference, for definitions and terms of the art. Standard methods also appear in Bindereif, Schón, & Westhof (2005) Handbook of RNA Biochemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany which describes detailed methods for RNA manipulation and analysis, and is incorporated herein by reference. Examples of appropriate molecular techniques for generating recombinant nucleic acids, and instructions sufficient to direct persons of skill through many cloning exercises are found in Green, M. R., and Sambrook, J., (Id.); Ausubel, F. M., et al., (Id.); Berger and Kimmel, Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques, Methods in Enzymology (Volume 152 Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif. 1987); and PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications (Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. 1990), which are incorporated by reference herein.

Methods for protein purification, chromatography, electrophoresis, centrifugation, and crystallization are described in Coligan et al. (2000) Current Protocols in Protein Science, Vol. 1, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Methods for cell-free synthesis are described in Spirin & Swartz (2008) Cell-free Protein Synthesis, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany. Methods for incorporation of non-native amino acids into proteins using cell-free synthesis are described in Shimizu et al (2006) FEBS Journal, 273, 4133-4140.

PCR amplification methods are well known in the art and are described, for example, in Innis et al., PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications, Academic Press Inc. San Diego, Calif., 1990. An amplification reaction typically includes the DNA that is to be amplified, a thermostable DNA polymerase, two oligonucleotide primers, deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs), reaction buffer and magnesium. Typically a desirable number of thermal cycles is between 1 and 25. Methods for primer design and optimization of PCR conditions are well known in the art and can be found in standard molecular biology texts such as Ausubel et al., Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 5^(th) Edition, Wiley, 2002, and Innis et al., PCR Protocols, Academic Press, 1990. Computer programs are useful in the design of primers with the required specificity and optimal amplification properties (e.g., Oligo Version 5.0 (National Biosciences)). In some embodiments, the PCR primers may additionally contain recognition sites for restriction endonucleases, to facilitate insertion of the amplified DNA fragment into specific restriction enzyme sites in a vector. If restriction sites are to be added to the 5′ end of the PCR primers, it is preferable to include a few (e.g., two or three) extra 5′ bases to allow more efficient cleavage by the enzyme. In some embodiments, the PCR primers may also contain an RNA polymerase promoter site, such as T7 or SP6, to allow for subsequent in vitro transcription. Methods for in vitro transcription are well known to those of skill in the art (see, e.g., Van Gelder et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:1663-1667, 1990; Eberwine et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:3010-3014, 1992).

OmpT1 Cleavable Proteins

The present invention provides target proteins that are capable of being cleaved and inactivated by proteolytic enzymes such as OmpT1. In order to be cleaved by the protease, the proteins are modified to introduce proteolytic cleavages sites into the protein. In some embodiments, the cleavage site introduced into the modified target protein is a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond, and the scissile OmpT1 is introduced into a surface exposed motif of the target protein. The cleavage site recognized by OmpT1 comprises two adjacent basic residues. Thus, the target proteins described herein are modified to comprise two adjacent basic residues that are positively charged at pH 7.0.

Modification of Proteins to Introduce an OmpT1 Cleavage Site in a Surface Exposed Motif Having a B Factor of at Least 50 Å²

In some embodiments, the target protein is modified to introduce the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond into a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² when the amino acid sequence of the target protein or motif region is uncomplexed. The location of a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å² can be determined in several ways. B-factors are given for each atom in crystallographic Protein Data Bank (PDB) files. The B factor of a surface exposed motif can be calculated using the GetArea algorithm embedded in pymol molecular modeling software (See the internet at pymolwiki.org/index.php/Get_Area). Alternatively, if an X-ray crystallographic structure of the protein is not available, but an NMR structure of the protein is available, the random coil index (RCI) may be used in place of a large B-factor (See Berjanskii, M. V., et al., Application of the random coil index to studying protein flexibility, J Biomol NMR. 2008 January;40(1):31-48. Epub 2007 Nov. 6).

In order to modify a target protein to introduce an OmpT1 cleavage site into a surface exposed motif having a B factor of at least 50 Å², the B-factors from X-ray crystallographic structures of the protein can be mapped to the amino acid sequence, and the sequence recombinantly modified to include a scissile OmptT1 peptide bond at site(s) with large B-factors. The recombinantly modified target protein can then be tested for degradation of the protein in a cell-extract containing OmpT1. In some embodiments, the B factor is at least 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 or 100 Å². In some embodiments, the B factor is between about 50 and about 200 Å², or between about 50 and about 150 Å², or between about 50 and 120 Å². It is understood that ranges described herein include all values in between the end points.

Modification of Proteins to Introduce an OmpT1 Cleavage Site in a Surface Exposed Motif Having a Total Solvent Accessible Surface Area of Between About 25 Å² and About 225 Å².

In some embodiments, the target protein is modified to introduce the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond into a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². The location of a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å² can be determined using methods known in the art. For example, the software routine GETAREA can be used to locate solvent-exposed vertices of intersecting atoms, as described in Fraczkiewicz, R. and Braun, W., “Exact and efficient analytical calculation of the accessible surface areas and their gradients for macromolecules,” J. Comp. Chem., 19, 319-333 (1998). Thus, one can calculate solvent accessible surface area (solvation energy) of a protein molecule using the GETAREA software by entering atomic coordinates in PDB (protein database) format, specifying the desired radius of the water probe, and specifying the desired level of output using a form provided on the internet at the University of Texas Medical Branch website curie.utmb.edu/getarea.html (parameters: radius of the water probe=1.4). Other methods for determining total solvent accessible surface area are described in Eisenberg, D. and McLachlan, A. D. (1986) Nature, 319, 199; Markley, J. L.; et al. (1998) Pure & Appl. Chem., 70, 117; and Wesson, L. and Eisenberg, D. (1992) Protein Sci., 1, 227.

Modification of Proteins to Introduce an OmpT1 Cleavage Site in a Position of the Protein which Exhibits a Phi Angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi Angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot

In some embodiments, the target protein is modified to introduce the scissile OmpT1 peptide bond in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot. The location of the position in a protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot can be determined using methods known in the art. Methods for calculating Phi and Psi angles are described, e.g., in Lovell, S. C. et al., Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics, 50:437-450 (2003). One can determine the Phi and Psi angles in a Ramachandran plot by uploading a coordinate file or a PDB file on the MOLPROBITY server on the internet at kinemage.biochem.duke.edu (see Chen, V. B., et al., (2010) MolProbity: all-atom structure validation for macromolecular crystallography. Acta Crystallographica D66: 12-21.). Alternatively, one can use the Ramachandran Plot Explorer available on the internet at boscoh.com/ramaplot.

The modified proteins described herein are selected because they can inhibit production of proteins in cell-free synthesis systems. Thus, in some embodiments, the modified proteins described herein decrease the production of full length proteins in bacterial cell-free extracts. For example, the proteins RF1 and RF2 are part of the termination complex that recognizes a stop codon in the mRNA and terminates translation of the polypeptide chain. Premature termination of translation is undesirable when incorporating non-native amino acids into a protein using cell free translation systems as described herein. Reducing recognition of the stop codon by the termination complex can increase the yield of proteins incorporating nnAA. Thus, in some embodiments, the RF1 and/or RF2 protein, or a function homolog thereof, is modified to contain OmpT1 cleavage sites in a surface exposed motif having a B Factor of at least 50 Å² when the RF1 and/or RF2 protein, or functional homolog thereof, is uncomplexed. In some embodiments, the RF1 and/or RF2 protein, or a function homolog thereof, is modified to contain OmpT1 cleavage sites in a surface exposed motif having a total solvent accessible surface area of between about 25 Å² and about 225 Å². In some embodiments, the RF1 and/or RF2 protein, or a function homolog thereof, is modified to contain OmpT1 cleavage sites in a position of the protein which exhibits a Phi angle of from 0° to −180° or a Psi angle from 0° to +180° in a Ramachadran Plot. In some embodiments, the functional modified protein is substantially similar to RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) or RF2 (SEQ ID NO:2).

The RF1 protein includes the RF1 wildtype prototype protein (SEQ ID NO:1) from E. coli as well as polymorphic variations and recombinantly created muteins. RF1 proteins are defined as having substantially the same biological activity or functional capacity as the wild type (e.g., at least 80% of either), have at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or 95% sequence identity to the prototype protein RF1, and/or bind to polyclonal antibodies generated against the prototype protein SEQ ID NO:1.

With regard to the binding of an RF1 protein to polyclonal antibodies, the RF1 protein will bind under designated immunoassay conditions to the specified antibodies with a specificity at least two times the background, where the antibodies do not substantially bind in a significant amount to other proteins present in the sample. For example, polyclonal antibodies raised to RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1), or isoforms or portions thereof, can be selected to obtain only those polyclonal antibodies that are specifically immunoreactive with RF1 and not with other proteins, except for polymorphic variants of RF1. A variety of immunoassay formats may be used to select antibodies specifically immunoreactive with a particular protein. For example, solid-phase ELISA immunoassays are routinely used to select antibodies specifically immunoreactive with a protein (see, e.g., Harlow & Lane, Antibodies, A Laboratory Manual (1988) for a description of immunoassay formats and conditions that can be used to determine specific immunoreactivity). Typically a specific or selective reaction will be at least twice background signal or noise and more typically more than 10 to 100 times background.

As described in the Examples, RF1 was successfully modified to introduce functional OmpT1 cleavage sites in a surface exposed motif. However, the introduction of putative dibasic OmpT1 cleavage sites into RF1 did not always result in a protein that could be efficiently cleaved by OmpT1. For example, the single amino acid substitutions M74R, E76K, E84K, A85R, E87R, E108R, T293R and S304K were introduced into the loop regions of RF1 beside an existing Arg or Lys, thereby creating dibasic cleavage sites. However, these variants were not efficiently cleaved when the RF1 variants were expressed in OmpT positive cell extracts. The present invention therefore provides the unexpected result that proteins such as RF1 can be modified such that the protein is capable of being cleaved by a protease such as OmpT1.

As will be understood by persons of skill in the art, the introduced cleavage site can be cleaved by an enzyme with OmpT1-like enzyme activity, where the enzyme activity results from a functional homolog or fragment of OmpT1, or from a protein that is modified to have OmpT1-like activity.

Cleavage of Unmodified Proteins by OmpT1

The proteins described herein can also contain endogenous OmpT1 protease cleavage sites. For example, in some embodiments, the unmodified or wild-type protein contains a dibasic amino acid sequence comprising a scissile OmpT1 peptide bond that is cleavable by OmpT1. Cleavage of the protein by OmpT1 can be tested by incubating the purified protein with bacterial cell-free extracts that express OmpT1, and comparing the amount of cleavage therein with the amount of cleavage detected in cell-free extracts that do not express OmpT1. In some embodiments, the unmodified proteins containing endogenous OmpT1 cleavage sites are necessary or required for normal cell growth or function, but inhibit the translation of proteins in cell-free extracts. Thus, the invention provides methods for selectively inactivating unmodified proteins by cleavage with OmpT1, where the timing of inactivation can be controlled such that the proteins are functional during cell growth, but are inactivated in cell-extracts expressing OmpT1.

Template

In order to produce the proteins of this invention, one needs a nucleic acid template. Templates for the invention are used to produce the proteins modified to comprise a scissile OmpT1 cleavage site. Templates for the invention are also used to produce proteins of interest that are expressed in cell-free systems. The templates for cell-free protein synthesis can be either mRNA or DNA. The template can comprise sequences for any particular gene of interest, and may encode a full-length polypeptide or a fragment of any length thereof. Nucleic acids that serve as protein synthesis templates are optionally derived from a natural source or they can be synthetic or recombinant. For example, DNAs can be recombinant DNAs, e.g., plasmids, viruses or the like.

In one embodiment, the DNA template comprises an ORF encoding a target protein comprising an OmpT1 cleavage site. For example, the ORF can encode a modified target protein that is required for normal cell growth and survival, but whose activity decreases the yield of proteins in cell-free extracts, either directly or indirectly. Thus, the ORF may encode a protein component of the termination complex, such as RF1 or RF2 or modified variants thereof. The ORF may also encode an RNase that degrades RNA templates.

In another embodiment, the DNA template comprises an ORF encoding a protein of interest that is modified to incorporate a non-native amino acid. Thus, the ORF may encode any protein having biological importance that incorporates a nnAA at a defined position of the amino acid sequence. Non-limiting examples of such proteins of interest include antibodies, hormones, cytokines, and viral proteins. The invention uses sense codons for the incorporation of non-native amino acids, and circumvents the requirement of orthogonal components as is commonly found in the art. In these embodiments, the ORF comprises at least one isoaccepting sense codon. The ORF further comprises one codon corresponding to a defined amino acid residue that recognizes a tRNA charged with a non-native amino acid. In some embodiments, the ORF comprises an amber codon (UAG) that binds a tRNA charged with a non-native amino acid. In other embodiments, the template is capable of translating a complete and functional protein regardless of whether non-native amino acids are chosen to be incorporated into the protein of interest.

A DNA template that comprises the ORF of interest will be operably linked to at least one promoter and to one or more other regulatory sequences including without limitation repressors, activators, transcription and translation enhancers, DNA-binding proteins, etc. Suitable quantities of DNA template for use herein can be produced by amplifying the DNA in well known cloning vectors and hosts, or by polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

The DNA template can further comprise the ORF of interest joined in frame to nucleic acid sequences that encode amino acid sequences that are useful for isolating and purifying the expressed protein, such as poly-amino acid tags that bind with high affinity to chromatography media. The poly-amino acid tag can be located at the 5′ end or 3′ end of the ORF, resulting in an amino-terminal or carboxyl terminal tag in the expressed protein, respectively. In one embodiment, the ORF is joined in frame to sequences that encode a poly-Histidine tag.

One embodiment uses a bacterial lysate. A DNA template can be constructed for bacterial expression by operably linking a desired protein-encoding DNA to both a promoter sequence and a bacterial ribosome binding site (Shine-Delgarno sequence). Promoters suitable for use with the DNA template in the cell-free transcription-translation methods of the invention include any DNA sequence capable of promoting transcription in vivo in the bacteria from which the bacterial extract is derived. Preferred are promoters that are capable of efficient initiation of transcription within the host cell. DNA encoding the desired protein and DNA containing the desired promoter and Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequences can be prepared by a variety of methods known in the art. Alternatively, the desired DNA sequences can be obtained from existing clones or, if none are available, by screening DNA libraries and constructing the desired DNA sequences from the library clones.

RNA templates encoding the protein of interest can be conveniently produced from a recombinant host cell transformed with a vector constructed to express a mRNA with a bacterial ribosome binding site (SD sequence) operably linked to the coding sequence of the desired gene such that the ribosomes in the reaction mixture are capable of binding to and translating such mRNA. Thus, the vector carries any promoter capable of promoting the transcription of DNA in the particular host cell used for RNA template synthesis.

Because it is difficult to extract un-degraded RNA from bacteria, higher eukaryotic cell culture is preferred for the production of the RNA template. In principle, any higher eukaryotic cell culture is workable, including both vertebrate and invertebrate cell cultures. The RNA template can be conveniently isolated in a total cellular RNA fraction extracted from the host cell culture. Total cellular RNA can be isolated from the host cell culture by any method known in the art. The desired RNA template can be isolated along with most of the cellular mRNA if the RNA template is designed to contain at its 3′ end a polyadenylation signal recognized by the eukaryotic host cell. Thus, the host cell will produce the RNA template with a polyadenylate (poly(A)) tail. Polyadenylated mRNAs can be separated from the bulk of cellular RNA by affinity chromatography on oligodeoxythymidylate (oligo (dT))-cellulose columns using any methods known in the art. If the size of the mRNA encoding the desired protein is known, the mRNA preparation can be further purified for mRNA molecules of the particular size by agarose gel electrophoresis of the RNA.

Expression of Modified Proteins Having OmpT1 Cleavage Sites

Once the nucleic acid template is produced, the template is used to express the recombinant target protein comprising an OmpT1 cleavage site in a cell, or to synthesize a modified recombinant target protein in a cell-free translation system. For example, the template can be added to a cell lysate under conditions sufficient to translate the template into protein. The cell lysate can be from bacterial cells or eukaryotic cells. The expressed protein can then be purified using methods known in the art, as described below.

Purifying Proteins to Test for Activity

Proteins containing OmpT1 cleavage sites can be purified as is standard in the art. Proteins of the invention can be recovered and purified by methods including, but not limited to, ammonium sulfate or ethanol precipitation, acid or base extraction, column chromatography, affinity column chromatography, anion or cation exchange chromatography, phosphocellulose chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, hydroxylapatite chromatography, lectin chromatography, gel electrophoresis, etc. For example, proteins comprising N-terminal Histidine tags can be purified using affinity media containing metal ions such as nickel and cobalt. The affinity media is then washed to remove unbound protein, and the bound proteins eluted and recovered. In some embodiments, the poly-histidine tagged proteins are purified using Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography (IMAC). The modified proteins can also be purified using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), or other suitable methods where high purity is desired. A preferred purification method is provided in Example 1.

Following purification, proteins containing OmpT1 cleavage sites can possess a conformation different from the desired conformations of the relevant polypeptides. Thus, the purified proteins can be subjected to conditions that result in the preferred protein conformation. A variety of purification/protein folding methods are known in the art, e.g., Deutscher, Methods in Enzymology Vol. 182: Guide to Protein Purification (Academic Press, Inc. N.Y. 1990); Bollag et al., Protein Methods, 2nd Edition, (Wiley-Liss, N.Y. 1996). In general, it is occasionally desirable to denature and reduce expressed polypeptides and then to cause the polypeptides to re-fold into the preferred conformation. For example, guanidine, urea, DTT, DTE, and/or a chaperone can be added to a translation product of interest. Methods of reducing, denaturing and renaturing proteins are well known to those of skill in the art. See, e.g. Debinski et al., J. Biol. Chem. 268:14065-70 (1993); Buchner et al., Anal. Biochem. 205:263-70 (1992).

Confirmation of Functional Biological Activity of Modified Proteins Having OmpT1 Cleavage Sites

Depending on the desired use of the modified proteins described herein, it can be important for the modified proteins to have biological activity comparable to an unmodified, wild-type protein. For example, if the protein to be modified is important for normal growth of bacteria, it is desirable to retain the normal activity levels of the protein until the cells are lysed to produce the cell-free lysate for translation. Thus, the methods of the present invention provide for modified proteins containing OmpT1 cleavage sites that have biological activity comparable to the native or wild-type protein. Modified proteins that retain wild-type levels of activity, or activity levels that are comparable to wild-type, are referred to herein as a functional proteins. One may determine the specific activity of a protein by determining the level of activity in a functional assay. Alternatively, one may determine the specific activity of a protein by quantitating the amount of protein present in a non-functional assay, e.g. immunostaining, ELISA, quantitation on coomasie or silver stained gel, etc., and determining the ratio of biologically active protein to total protein. Generally, a modified protein is comparable to a wild-type protein if the specific activity as thus defined is at least about 50% of the wild-type protein, or at least about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90% or greater than that of the wild-type protein. See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (Cold Spring Harbor Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. 1989).

The functional activity of modified proteins can be tested in a variety of ways. For example, the growth rate of bacteria expressing the modified protein can be compared to the growth rate of bacteria expressing a wild-type, control or unmodified protein. The functional activity of modified proteins can also be tested by determining the ability of the modified protein to terminate translation at a stop codon in the mRNA template. Termination of translation results in truncated proteins, and thus the relative activities of modified proteins can be quantitated by measuring the amount of truncated and full length protein, and comparing the ratio of truncated to full length protein with that resulting from wild-type protein, as described in the Examples and shown in FIG. 1. A modified protein has comparable activity to a wild-type protein if the ratio of truncated to full length protein is at least about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or greater than the ratio of truncated to full length protein using a wild-type protein.

Confirmation that Modified Proteins are Cleavable by OmpT1

Once the modified proteins are determined to have comparable biological activity to the wild-type or unmodified protein, the modified proteins are tested to determine that they are cleaved by OmpT1. One method for testing that the modified proteins of the invention are cleaved by OmpT1 is to add recombinant protein containing OmpT1 cleavage sites to a cell-free extract containing functional OmpT1. If the modified protein is cleaved by OmpT1, it will migrate at an apparent lower molecular weight than the intact protein during gel electrophoresis (e.g., SDS-PAGE). The modified protein can be detected by including a radioactive label such as ¹⁴C in the translation reaction under conditions suitable for incorporation of the radioactive label into the modified protein. The migration of the radioactively labeled protein can be visualized, for example, on an autoradiograph of the gel. Cleavage of the modified protein by OmpT1 can also be detected by Western blot analysis, for example, by transferring the proteins from the gel to a solid support, contacting the support with antibodies that bind to the intact and cleaved protein, and visualizing the bound antibodies using a detectable label.

The cleavage activity by OmpT1 can be determined by comparing the amount or rate of cleavage of a modified protein by OmpT1 to that of an unmodified protein. For example, the cleavage rate of the modified protein by OmpT1 can be greater than 50% of the cleavage rate of the wild-type protein under specified conditions. In some embodiments, the cleavage rate of a modified protein described herein is greater than 50% of the cleavage rate of wild-type protein after 30 minutes at 30° C. when the modified and wild-type proteins are present at a similar concentration (e.g., a concentration of 0.1-1.0 micromolar) in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1. In some embodiments, greater than 90% of the modified protein is cleaved by OmpT1 after 60 minutes at 30° C. when the modified protein is present at a concentration of 0.1-1.0 micromolar in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1.

It will be understood that the OmpT cleavage sites introduced into the modified proteins described herein are cleavable by any protein or polypeptide that possesses OmpT-like enzyme activity. All that is required is that the OmpT1-like enzyme be capable of cleaving a protein modified to contain OmpT cleavage sites. For example, the OmpT-like proteolytic activity can be provided by wild-type or native OmpT1, or a functional homolog or fragment thereof. The OmpT-like activity can also be provided by a protein that is substantially identical or substantially similar to OmpT1. For example, the protein with OmpT-like activity can have at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% sequence identity to OmpT1. In some embodiments, the protein having OmpT-like activity is at least 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% identical to SEQ ID NO:3. In some embodiments, the protein having OmpT1 activity is specifically bound by a polyclonal antibody that binds to OmpT1 and variants thereof. Selection of polyclonal antibodies that bind to OmpT1 and functional variants thereof can be performed as described herein for selecting polyclonal antibodies that bind RF1.

Transforming Bacteria with the OmpT1 Cleavable Proteins

Once the modified essential target proteins are determined to retain wild-type function and to be susceptible to cleavage by OmpT1, as described above, nucleic acids encoding the modified proteins are transformed into bacteria. The bacteria can be transformed with the nucleic acid under conditions suitable for incorporation of the nucleic acid into the genome of the bacteria. For example, the bacteria can be transformed with oligonucleotides having sequences that encode the OmpT1 cleavage sites described herein using oligonucleotide-mediated allelic replacement, as described in the Examples. Incorporation of the desired mutations in the bacterial genome can be determined, for example, by screening transformed colonies using Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR, as described in the Examples.

Use of OmpT1 Cleavable Proteins to Increase the Yield of Proteins in Cell-Free Translation Systems

The modified target proteins having OmpT1 cleavage sites are efficiently degraded when expressed in a bacterial cell extract that contains active OmpT1 protease. Among the various uses of this invention, careful selection of inhibitory proteins that are modified to be cleavable by OmpT1 can enhance the productivity of cell-free synthesis systems. For example, in one preferred use, the cleavage of selected target proteins by OmpT1 can improve the translation efficiency of full length proteins incorporating non-native amino acids in cell-free extracts. In certain embodiments, the non-native amino acid is incorporated at an amber codon introduced into the mRNA template. As described above, the incorporation of non-native amino acids at an amber codon can be inhibited by termination complex proteins such as RF1 and RF2. Thus, in a particularly desirable embodiment, cleavage and inactivation of RF1 and/or RF2 by OmpT1 can increase the yield of proteins engineered to incorporate a non-native amino acid at an amber codon.

Non-Native Amino Acids

As described above, in one preferred use, degradation of the modified target protein by OmpT1 increases the yield of proteins incorporating non-native amino acids in cell-free synthesis systems. The non-native amino acids used in the present invention typically comprise one or more chemically modified derivatives or analogues of amino acids, wherein the chemical structures have the formula NH3-(CR)-COOH, where R is not any of the 20 canonical substituents defining the natural amino acids. Suitable non-native amino acid derivatives are commercially available from vendors such as, e.g., Bachem Inc., (Torrance, Calif.); Genzyme Pharmaceuticals (Cambridge, Mass.); Senn Chemicals (Dielsdorf, Switzerland); Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, Mo.); Synthetec, Inc (Albany, Oreg.). Preferably, the non-native amino acids include but are not limited to derivatives and/or analogs of glycine, tyrosine, glutamine, phenyalanine, serine, threonine, proline, tryptophan, leucine, methionine, lysine, alanine, arginine, asparagine, valine, isoleucine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine, histidine, as well as beta-amino acids and homologs, BOC-protected amino acids, and FMOC-protected amino acids.

The generation of non-native amino acid derivatives, analogs and mimetics not already commercially available can be accomplished in several ways. For example, one way is to synthesize a non-native amino acid of interest using organic chemistry methods known in the art, while another way is to utilize chemoenzymatic synthesis methods known in the art. See, e.g., Kamphuis et al., Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 672:510-527, 1992; Ager D J and Fotheringham I G, Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Devel., 4:800-807, 2001; and Weiner et al., Chem. Soc. Rev., 39:1656-1691, 2010; Asymmetric Syntheses of Unnatural Amino Acids and Hydroxyethylene Peptide Isosteres, Wieslaw M. Kazmierski, ed., Peptidomimetics Protocols, Vol. 23, 1998; and Unnatural Amino Acids, Kumar G. Gadamasetti and Tamim Braish, ed., Process Chemistry in the Pharmaceutical Industry, Vol. 2, 2008.

One skilled in the art will recognize that many procedures and protocols are available for the synthesis of non-native amino acids, for example, as described in Wieslaw M. Kazmierski, ed., Peptidomimetics Protocols, Vol. 23, 1998; Wang L et al., Chemistry and Biology, 16:323-336, 2009; and Wang F, Robbins S, Guo J, Shen W and Schultz P G., PLoS One, 5:e9354, 2010.

The non-native amino acids may include non-native L- and D-alpha amino acids. L-alpha amino acids can be chemically synthesized by methods known in the art such as, but not limited to, hydrogen-mediated reductive coupling via rhodium-catalyzed C—C bond formation of hydrogenated conjugations of alkynes with ethyl iminoacetates (Kong et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 127:11269-11276, 2005). Alternatively, semisynthetic production by metabolic engineering can be utilized. For example, fermentation procedures can be used to synthesize non-native amino acids from E. coli harboring a re-engineered cysteine biosynthetic pathway. (see Maier T H, Nature, 21:422-427, 2003). Racemic mixtures of alpha-amino acids can be produced using asymmetric Strecker syntheses (as described in Zuend et al., Nature, 461;968-970 (2009)) or using transaminase enzymes for large-scale synthesis (as found in Taylor et al., Trends Biotechnol., 16:412-419, 1998. Bicyclic tertiary alpha-amino acids may be produced by alkylation of glycine-derived Schiff bases or nitroacetates with cyclic ether electrophiles, followed by acid-induced ring opening and cyclization in NH₄OH (see Strachan et al., J. Org. Chem., 71:9909-9911 (2006)).

The non-native amino acids may further comprise beta-amino acids, which are remarkably stable to metabolism, exhibit slow microbial degradation, and are inherently stable to proteases and peptidases. An example of the synthesis of beta amino acids is described in Tan C Y K and Weaver D F, Tetrahedron, 58:7449-7461, 2002.

In some instances, the non-native amino acids comprise chemically modified amino acids commonly used in solid phase peptide synthesis, including but not limited to, tert-butoxycarbonyl-(Boc) or (9H-fluoren-9-ylmethoxy)carbonyl (Fmoc)-protected amino acids. For example, Boc derivatives of leucine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan and proline can be produced by selective 3,3-dimethyldioxirane side-chain oxidation, as described in Saladino et al., J. Org. Chem., 64:8468-8474, 1999. Fmoc derivatives of alpha-amino acids can be synthesized by alkylation of ethyl nitroacetate and transformation into derivatives (see Fu et al., J. Org Chem., 66:7118-7124, 2001).

Non-native amino acids that can be used in the present invention may include, but are not limited to, non-native analogues or derivatives of the 20 canonical amino acid substituents. One of skill in the art will appreciate that the synthesis of various non-native amino acids may involve an array of chemical and chemo-enzymatic methods known in the art. In some embodiments, non-native amino acids may be synthesized according to procedures known in the art specific to a particular derivative of each non-native amino acid. Sycheva et al., Microbiology, 76:712-718, 2007 describes a procedure for synthesizing the non-native amino acids norvaline and norleucine. Diallylated proline derivatives can be produced by practical stereoselective synthesis (see Belvisi et al., Tetrahedron, 57:6463-6473, 2001). For example, tryptophan derivatives can be synthesized by ytterbium triflate catalyzed electrophilic substitution of indo as described in Janczuk et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 43:4271-4274, 2002, and synthesis of 5-aryl tryptophan derivatives is detailed in Wang et al., Tetrahedron, 58:3101-3110, 2002. Non-native serine analogs can be produced by beta-fragmentation of primary alkoxyl radicals (see Boto et al., J. Org. Chem., 72:7260-7269, 2007). Alternatively, a procedure for phenylserine synthesis is described in Koskinen et al., Tetrahedron Lett., 36:5619-5622, 1995. The procedure for the synthesis of L-phenylglycine is described in Cho et al., Biotechnol. Bioprocess. Eng., 11;299-305, 2006. And a chemo-enzymatic method of synthesizing D-4-hydroxyphenylglycine is described in Yu et al., Folia Microbiol (Praha), 54:509-15; 2009. A non-limiting example of the production of 2-naphthylalanine or Boc-protected 2-naphthylalanine is detailed in Boaz et al., Org. Process Res. Dev., 9:472-478; 2005. Synthesis of iodo-L-tyrosine and p-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine are described in Hino N, Nat. Protoc., 1:2957-2962, 2007.

Charged tRNA

In order to incorporate the non-native amino acids described herein into the desired polypeptide, the nnAA described above need to be charged to isoaccepting sense or amber codon tRNAs. The tRNA charging reaction, as used herein, refers to the in vitro tRNA aminoacylation reaction in which desired isoaccepting sense codon or amber codon tRNAs are aminoacylated with their respective amino acid of interest. The tRNA charging reaction comprises the charging reaction mixture, an isoaccepting sense tRNA, and as used in this invention, may include either natural or non-native amino acids. The tRNA charging reaction can occur in situ in the same reaction as the cell-free translation reaction, or can occur in a separate reaction, where the charged tRNA is then added to the cell-free translation reaction.

tRNA molecules to be used in the tRNA charging reaction can be synthesized from a synthetic DNA template for any tRNA of choice following amplification by PCR in the presence of appropriate 5′ and 3′ primers. The resulting double-stranded DNA template, containing a T7-promoter sequence, can then be transcribed in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase to produce the tRNA molecule, which is subsequently added to the tRNA charging reaction.

The tRNA charging reaction can be any reaction that aminoacylates a sense codon or amber codon tRNA molecule with a desired amino acid separate from the protein synthesis reaction. This reaction can take place in an extract, an artificial reaction mixture, or a combination of both. Suitable tRNA aminoacylation reaction conditions are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Typically, tRNA aminoacylation is carried out in a physiological buffer with a pH value ranging from 6.5 to 8.5, 0.5-10 mM high energy phosphate (such as ATP), 5-200 mM MgCl₂, 20-200 mM KCl. Preferably, the reaction is conducted in the presence of a reducing agent (such as 0-10 mM dithiothreitol). Where the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is exogenously added, the concentration of the synthetase is typically 1-100 nM. One skilled in the art would readily recognize that these conditions can be varied to optimize tRNA aminoacylation, such as high specificity for the pre-selected amino acids, high yields, and lowest cross-reactivity.

In other embodiments of the invention, isoaccepting or amber tRNAs are charged by aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. The tRNA charging reactions can utilize either the native aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase specific to the isoaccepting sense tRNAs to be charged, an engineered aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase, or a “promiscuous” aminoacyl tRNA synthetase capable of charging a tRNA molecule with more than one type of amino acid. Promiscuous aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases may either themselves be engineered, or may include endogenously produced aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases that are sometimes found in nature. Methods of charging isoaccepting tRNAs with native and non-native amino acids using aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are described in WO2010/081110, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein.

Translation Systems

The above described charged isoaccepting sense or amber tRNAs are now combined with a translation system which can comprise a cell free extract, cell lysate, or reconstituted translation system, along with the nucleic acid template for synthesis of the desired polypeptide or protein having non-native amino acids at preselected (defined) positions. The reaction mixture will further comprise monomers for the macromolecule to be synthesized, e.g. amino acids, nucleotides, etc., and such co-factors, enzymes and other reagents that are necessary for the synthesis, e.g. ribosomes, tRNA, polymerases, transcriptional factors, etc. In addition to the above components such as a cell-free extract, nucleic acid template, and amino acids, materials specifically required for protein synthesis may be added to the reaction. The materials include salts, folinic acid, cyclic AMP, inhibitors for protein or nucleic acid degrading enzymes, inhibitors or regulators of protein synthesis, adjusters of oxidation/reduction potentials, non-denaturing surfactants, buffer components, spermine, spermidine, putrescine, etc. Various cell-free synthesis reaction systems are well known in the art. See, e.g., Kim, D. M. and Swartz, J. R. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 66:180-8 (1999); Kim, D. M. and Swartz, J. R. Biotechnol. Prog. 16:385-90 (2000); Kim, D. M. and Swartz, J. R. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 74:309-16 (2001); Swartz et al, Methods MoL Biol. 267:169-82 (2004); Kim, D. M. and Swartz, J. R. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 85:122-29 (2004); Jewett, M. C. and Swartz, J. R., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:19-26 (2004); Yin, G. and Swartz, J. R., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:188-95 (2004); Jewett, M. C. and Swartz, J. R., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 87:465-72 (2004); Voloshin, A. M. and Swartz, J. R., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 91:516-21 (2005). Additional conditions for the cell-free synthesis of desired polypeptides are described in WO2010/081110, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

In some embodiments, a DNA template is used to drive in vitro protein synthesis, and RNA polymerase is added to the reaction mixture to provide enhanced transcription of the DNA template. RNA polymerases suitable for use herein include any RNA polymerase that functions in the bacteria from which the bacterial extract is derived. In other embodiments, an RNA template is used to drive in vitro protein synthesis, and the components of the reaction mixture can be admixed together in any convenient order, but are preferably admixed in an order wherein the RNA template is added last, thereby minimizing potential degradation of the RNA template by nucleases.

Cell Free Translation Systems

Cell-free protein synthesis can exploit the catalytic power of the cellular machinery. Obtaining maximum protein yields in vitro requires adequate substrate supply, e.g. nucleoside triphosphates and amino acids, a homeostatic environment, catalyst stability, and the removal or avoidance of inhibitory byproducts. The optimization of in vitro synthetic reactions benefits from recreating the in vivo state of a rapidly growing organism. In some embodiments of the invention, cell-free synthesis is therefore performed in a reaction where oxidative phosphorylation is activated, i.e. the CYTOMIM™ system. The CYTOMIM™ system is defined by using a reaction condition in the absence of polyethylene glycol with optimized magnesium concentration. The CYTOMIM™ system does not accumulate phosphate, which is known to inhibit protein synthesis, whereas conventional secondary energy sources result in phosphate accumulation. Various other features of the CYTOMIM™ system are described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,338,789, the contents of which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

The presence of an active oxidative phosphorylation pathway can be demonstrated by the lack of a requirement for secondary energy sources, such as phosphoenolpyruvate, creatine phosphate, acetyl phosphate, or glycolytic intermediates such as glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, and pyruvate. The presence of an active oxidative phosphorylation pathway can also be determined by sensitivity of the pathway to inhibitors, such as electron transport chain inhibitors. Examples of electron transport chain inhibitors include 2-heptyl-4-hydroxyquinoline-N-oxide (HQNO), 2,4-dinitrophenol, cyanide, azide, thenoyltrifluoroacetone, and carbonyl-cyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone. Alternatively, in one embodiment, the cell-free translation system does not comprise an active oxidative phosphorylation pathway.

In vitro, or cell-free, protein synthesis offers several advantages over conventional in vivo protein expression methods. Cell-free systems can direct most, if not all, of the metabolic resources of the cell towards the exclusive production of one protein. Moreover, the lack of a cell wall and membrane components in vitro is advantageous since it allows for control of the synthesis environment. For example, tRNA levels can be changed to reflect the codon usage of genes being expressed. The redox potential, pH, or ionic strength can also be altered with greater flexibility than with in vivo protein synthesis because concerns of cell growth or viability do not exist. Furthermore, direct recovery of purified, properly folded protein products can be easily achieved.

The productivity of cell-free systems has improved over 2-orders of magnitude in recent years, from about 5 μg/ml-hr to about 500 μg/ml-hr. Such improvements have made in vitro protein synthesis a practical technique for laboratory-scale research and provides a platform technology for high-throughput protein expression. It further indicates the feasibility for using cell-free technologies as an alternative means to in vivo large-scale, commercial production of protein pharmaceuticals.

Generating a Lysate

The present invention utilizes a cell lysate for in vitro translation of a target protein. For convenience, the organism used as a source for the lysate may be referred to as the source organism or host cell. Host cells may be bacteria, yeast, mammalian or plant cells, or any other type of cell capable of protein synthesis. A lysate comprises components that are capable of translating messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) encoding a desired protein, and optionally comprises components that are capable of transcribing DNA encoding a desired protein. Such components include, for example, DNA-directed RNA polymerase (RNA polymerase), any transcription activators that are required for initiation of transcription of DNA encoding the desired protein, transfer ribonucleic acids (tRNAs), aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, 70S ribosomes, N¹⁰-formyltetrahydrofolate, formylmethionine-tRNAf^(met) synthetase, peptidyl transferase, initiation factors such as IF-1, IF-2, and IF-3, elongation factors such as EF-Tu, EF-Ts, and EF-G, release factors such as RF-1, RF-2, and RF-3, and the like.

An embodiment uses a bacterial cell from which a lysate is derived. A bacterial lysate derived from any strain of bacteria can be used in the methods of the invention. The bacterial lysate can be obtained as follows. The bacteria of choice are grown up overnight in any of a number of growth media and under growth conditions that are well known in the art and easily optimized by a practitioner for growth of the particular bacteria. For example, a natural environment for synthesis utilizes cell lysates derived from bacterial cells grown in medium containing glucose and phosphate, where the glucose is present at a concentration of at least about 0.25% (weight/volume), more usually at least about 1%; and usually not more than about 4%, more usually not more than about 2%. An example of such media is 2YTPG medium, however one of skill in the art will appreciate that many culture media can be adapted for this purpose, as there are many published media suitable for the growth of bacteria such as E. coli, using both defined and undefined sources of nutrients. Cells that have been harvested overnight can be lysed by suspending the cell pellet in a suitable cell suspension buffer, and disrupting the suspended cells by sonication, breaking the suspended cells in a French press, continuous flow high pressure homogenization, or any other method known in the art useful for efficient cell lysis The cell lysate is then centrifuged or filtered to remove large DNA fragments.

EXAMPLES Example 1

This example describes the modification of RF1 protein to introduce amino acid sequences that are cleavable by OmpT1 protease.

Methods:

Construction of a Template to Introduce OMPT1 Cleavage Sites into RF1

A PCR based strategy was used to introduce desired nucleotide sequence changes into nucleic acid templates that encode the modified RF1 proteins described herein. The PCR reaction was carried out using Phusion Hot Start Flex 2X Master Mix (NEB) according to the protocols suggested by the manufacturer. Generally a two-step overlapping PCR was carried out to introduce OmpT cleavage mutations into the RF1 encoding gene, as described in more detail below. PCR generated DNA templates were purified using QIAquick PCR purification kit (QIAGEN) for application in cell-free expression. After PCR purification the variants were sequenced by Mclab (South San Francisco, Calif.) to confirm the presence of the expected mutations.

Preparation of GamS Protein to Prevent Degradation of DNA Templates in Cell-Free Reactions

The efficiency of transcription from a DNA template can be decreased due to degradation of the template by endogenous bacterial exonucleases present in cell-free extracts. The short form of λ phage Gam protein (GamS) is known to protect DNA templates from degradation by inhibiting the activity of RecBCD (Exonuclease V) (see Sitararman, K., Esposito, D., Klarmann, G., Grice, S. F. L., Hartley, J. L. and Chatterjee, D. K. 2004, A Novel Cell-free Protein Synthesis System. J Biotechnol. 110: 257-263. Therefore, GamS protein was used in this example to stabilize PCR templates during cell-free transcription reactions. To produce recombinant GamS protein, the GamS gene was amplified to include a C-terminal poly-histidine tag, GGSHHHHHH (SEQ ID NO:50), by primers, 5′-ATATATCATATGAACGCTTATTACATTCAGGATCGTCTTGAG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:51), and 5′-ATATATGTCGACTTAATGATGATGATGATGATGAGAACCCCCTACCTCTGAATCAATATCAACCTGGTGGTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:52) using pKD46 (Datsenko, K. A. and Wanner, B. 2000, One-step Inactivation of Chromosomal Genes in Escherichia coli K-12 Using PCR Products. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 6640-6645) as template. The GamS gene was subcloned into the cell-free expression plasmid pYD317 at NdeI/SalI restriction sites. GamS was expressed in vitro and purified by Immobilized Metal Affinity Chromatography (IMAC) with purity higher than 90% (data not shown). GamS protein was stored at −70° C. before application in 100 mM Tris-Acetate buffer (pH 8.2), which also contained 160 mM potassium acetate, 200 mM sodium chloride and 10% sucrose.

Bacterial Strains and Plasmids

SBJY001 is an E. coli K12 derivative optimized for open cell free protein production. SBJY001 was transformed with the plasmid pKD46 (Coli Genetic Stock Center) which contains the phage λ Red recombinase genes under an inducible arabinose promoter.

Construction of SBHS002

SBHS002 is an ompT deletion E. coli strain created using P1 transduction. P1 lysate was made from JW0554-1 (CGSC#8680), a Keio collection strain containing the ompT::Kan^(R) mutation flanked by FRT sites. The JW0554-1 P1 lysate was then used to introduce the mutation into SBJY001 by P1 transduction. Colonies were grown on LB with 30 μg/ml of kanamycin to select for kanamycin resistance. SBJY001ompT::Kan^(R) was transformed with the 708-FLPe Cm^(R) expression plasmid (Gene Bridges). FLP synthesis was induced and colonies were screened for the loss of kanamycin resistance. Kanamycin resistant colonies were sequenced to confirm the deletion of ompT. The ompT deleted strain is referred to as SBHS002.

Cloning and Expression of N-Terminal His-Tagged RF1

RF1 was amplified from E. coli strain A19 genomic DNA using primers 5His-RF1: CATATGCATCACCATCACCATCACGGTGGTGGCTCTAAGCCTTCTATCGTTGCCAAACTGGAAGCC (SEQ ID NO:138) and 3RF1: GTCGACTTATTCCTGCTCGGACAACGCCGCCAG (SEQ ID NO:139) that introduced an N-terminal His-Tag and NdeI/SalI restriction sites. The insert was ligated into the expression vector pYD317 and confirmed by sequencing. RF1 was expressed in a 25 mL cell free reaction using the plasmid, purified by IMAC, and buffer exchanged into PBS.

Cleavage of Recombinant RF1 Variants Using Cell-Free Extracts

To test if the modified RF1 proteins described herein were cleavable by OmpT, recombinant RF1 variants were incubated with cell extracts with or without OmpT. SBJY001 cells, which have intact ompT protease on the outer membrane, and SBHS002, in which ompT was deleted, were grown up in 5 mL of LB overnight at 37° C. 50 μL of each culture was spun down at 8,000 rpm for 2 minutes and washed twice with 10 mM Tris, 20 mM ammonium chloride and 10 mM magnesium chloride. The cell pellets were then resuspended in 50 uL of the buffer and 10 μg of purified recombinant E. coli RF1 protein was added. The samples were incubated at 37° C. The samples were spun down at 8,000 rpm for 2 minutes. The supernatant containing the RF1 protein was removed and run on a SDS-PAGE gel.

Cell-Free Expression of RF1 Variants

The cell free transcription/translation reactions were carried out in a volume of 60 μl at 30° C. in 24 deep well plates (Cat. No.95040470, Thermo Scientific) for 4.5 hours. The PCR template concentration for RF1 variant expression was 10 μg/ml. The reaction composition also included 8 mM magnesium glutamate, 130 mM potassium glutamate, 35 mM sodium pyruvate, 1.2 mM AMP, 0.86 mM each of GMP, UMP and CMP, 4 mM sodium oxalate, 1 mM putrescine, 1.5 mM spermidine, 15 mM potassium phosphate, 1 mM tyrosine, 2 mM of each 19 other amino acids, 100 nM T7 RNA polymerase, 30% (V/V) S30 cell-extract. To facilitate disulfide formation, S30 cell-extract was treated with 50 μM IAM at room temperature for 30 min before cell-free reaction. A mixture of 2 mM oxidized glutathione (GSSG) and 1 mM reduced glutathione (GSH) was also added with 4.3 μM E. coli disulfide isomerase DsbC. To analyze cell-free expressed RF1 variants with SDS-PAGE and autoradiogram, reactions were performed in the presence of trace amounts of [¹⁴C]-leucine (300 μCi/mole; GE Life Sciences, N.J.). The RF1 variants were expressed in either an OmpT-positive (OmpT+) cell-extract, which was prepared from bacterial strain SBJY001, or an OmpT-negative (OmpT−) cell-extract, which was prepared from bacterial strain SBHS002 (SBJY001ΔompT). To stabilize PCR templates in the cell-free reaction, 1.4 μM GamS protein was also added to inhibit the activity of RecBCD.

SDS-PAGE and Autoradiography

In order to determine if the modified RF1 proteins were cleavable by OmpT, the RF1 proteins translated in the cell free reactions described above were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. The cell-free reaction samples labeled with ¹⁴C were centrifuged at the maximum speed in a bench top centrifuge and 4 μL of supernatant was mixed with Invitrogen SDS-PAGE sample loading buffer and water. The samples were loaded on 4˜12% Bis-Tris SDS-PAGE gels and run with MES running buffer for about 45 minutes. Then the gels were dried and exposed to phosphor screen (63-0034-86, GE healthcare, USA) overnight, and then scanned using Storm 460 (GE healthcare, USA).

Introduction of OmpT Cleavage Sites into RF1

To identify potential OmpT cleavage sites in the RF1 sequence, single Arg or Lys mutations were introduced into different loop regions of RF1 beside an existing Arg or Lys. The loop regions were predicted based on sequence alignment of prokaryotic class I release factors (see Graille, M., Heurgue-Hamard, V., Champ, S., Mora, L., Scrima, N., Ulryck, N., Tilbeurgh, H. and Buckingham, R. H. 2005, Molecular Basis for Bacterial Class I Release Factor Methylation by PrmC. Molecular Cell. 20: 917-927.) To generate the desired variants, the mutation sequences were designed in the middle of the forward and reverse oligo primers (Table 1). In the first step PCR, the 5′-fragment was amplified by PCR using 5chiT2PT7, 5′-GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGGCCGATTCATTAATGCAGCTGGCACGACAGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:53), and the reverse primers (Table 1). The 5′fragment included T7 promoter, the constant region of the N-terminal sequence and the mutation site. The 3′-fragment was also amplified in the first step using forward primers (Table 1) and 3chiT2TT7, 5′-GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGGCGGTGAGTTTTCTCCTTCATTACAGAAACGGC-3’ (SEQ ID NO:54). The 3′ fragment included the mutation site, the constant C-terminal region and T7 terminator sequences. In the second step PCR, the 5′-fragment and 3′-fragment DNA were assembled by overlapping PCR using a single primer 5chiT2,5′-GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:55).

First, 9 single mutations, M74R, E76R, E84R, A85R, E87R, E108R, T293R, N296K and S304R, were introduced in the loop regions beside an existing Arg or Lys (Table 2). These RF1 variants and WT RF1 were expressed using PCR templates in cell-free extracts with or without OmpT. The RF1 proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and autoradiography. When expressed in an OmpT negative cell-extract, all 10 RF1 variants showed complete full-length protein on SDS-PAGE. However, when expressed in cell-extracts containing OmpT, variant N296R was partially digested while the other variants migrated as expected for full-length, undigested proteins. N296 is located in the switch loop region of RF1, which is flexible and easy to access by protease digestion.

In the first round screening, N296K was selected for partial digestion by OmpT in cell-extract. In the second round screening, PCR templates of double mutant and triple mutant variants were generated using the same method as described above with primers listed in Table 1. Six double mutants, N296K/L297V, N296K/L297K, N296K/L297R, N296R/L297V, N296R/L297K, N296R/L297R, and 2 triple mutants, N296K/L297R/L298K and N296K/L297R/L298R (Table 2), were tested in cell-free expression with or without OmpT. All eight double and triple RF1 mutant variants were cleaved by OmpT1 (data not shown). Among these variants, N296K/L297R/L298R was most sensitive to digestion by OmpT.

TABLE 1 Forward and reverse primer sequences used in OmpT cleavage site screening SEQ ID RF1 Variants NO: Forward WT GCTCGATGATCCTGAAATGCGTGAGATGGCGCAGG 56 M74R GCTCGATGATCCTGAACGCCGTGAGATGGCGCAGG 57 E76K CGATGATCCTGAAATGCGTAAGATGGCGCAGGATGAAC 58 E84K CAGGATGAACTGCGCAAAGCTAAAGAAAAAAGCGAGCAAC 59 A85R CAGGATGAACTGCGCGAACGTAAAGAAAAAAGCGAGCAAC 60 E87R GGATGAACTGCGCGAAGCTAAACGTAAAAGCGAGCAACTGGAAC 61 E108R GCCAAAAGATCCTGATGACCGTCGTAACGCCTTCCTCG 62 T293R CAACAGGCCGAAGCGTCTCGCCGTCGTAACCTGC 63 N296K GCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACTGCTGGGGAGTGGCG 64 S304K GGGAGTGGCGATCGCAAGGACCGTAACCGTACTTAC 65 N296K/L297V CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAAGTTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 66 N296K/L297K CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAAAAGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 67 N296K/L297R CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 68 N296R/L297V CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCGTTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 69 N296R/L297K CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCAAGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 70 N296R/L297R CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCCGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC 71 N296K/L297R/L298K CAGGCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTAAGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACC 72 N296K/L297R/L298R CAGGCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTCGCGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACC 73 Reverse WT CCTGCGCCATCTCACGCATTTCAGGATCATCGAGC 74 M74R CCTGCGCCATCTCACGGCGTTCAGGATCATCGAGC 75 E76K GTTCATCCTGCGCCATCTTACGCATTTCAGGATCATCG 76 E84K GTTGCTCGCTTTTTTCTTTAGCTTTGCGCAGTTCATCCTG 77 A85R GTTGCTCGCTTTTTTCTTTACGTTCGCGCAGTTCATCCTG 78 E87R GTTCCAGTTGCTCGCTTTTACGTTTAGCTTCGCGCAGTTCATCC 79 E108R CGAGGAAGGCGTTACGACGGTCATCAGGATCTTTTGGC 80 T293R GCAGGTTACGACGGCGAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTG 81 N296K CGCCACTCCCCAGCAGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGC 82 S304K GTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCCTTGCGATCGCCACTCCC 83 N296K/L297V GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGAACTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 84 N296K/L297K GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCTTTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 85 N296K/L297R GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 86 N296R/L297V GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGAACGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 87 N296R/L297K GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCTTGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 88 N296R/L297R GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACGGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG 89 N296K/L297R/L298K GGTCGCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCTTACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTG 90 N296K/L297R/L298R GGTCGCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCGCGACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTG 91 *Mutation sequences are underlined.

TABLE 2 Single, double and triple substitution variants of RF1 No. Single Substitution Variants A-1 M74R A-2 E76K A-3 E84K A-4 A85R A-5 E87R A-6 E108R A-7 T293R A-8 N296K A-9 S304K Double Substitution Variants A-11 N296K/L297V A-12 N296K/L297K A-13 N296K/L297R A-14 N296R/L297V A-15 N296R/L297K A-16 N296R/L297R Triple Substitution Variants A-17 N296K/L297R/L298K A-18 N296K/L297R/L298R Inserting OmpT Cleavage Peptides into the Switch Loop Region of RF1

In addition to introducing the amino acid mutations described above, RF1 was also modified to replace wild-type sequences in the switch loop region with known OmpT protease-susceptible peptide sequences (see Hwang, B., Varadarajan, N., Li, H., Rodriguez, S., Iverson, B. L. and Georgiou, G. 2007, Substrate Specificity of the Escherichia coli Outer Membrane Protease OmpP. J. Bacteriol. 189: 522-530; McCarter, J. D., Stephens, D., Shoemaker, K., Rosenberg, S., Kirsch, J. F. and Georgiou, G. 2004, Substrate Specificity of the Escherichia coli Outer Membrane Protease OmpT. J. Bacteriol. 186: 5919-5925). 22 RF1 variants were constructed, and are listed in Table 3. Variant Nos. 1 to 14 contained ARRG (SEQ ID NO:47) for OmpT digestion. Variant No. 15 contained ARR instead of ARRG (SEQ ID NO:47) since it is at the end of switch loop. Variant No. 16 contained a single mutation N296R. Variant Nos. 17, 18 and 19 contained an OmpT cleavage peptide WLAARRGRG (SEQ ID NO:48). Variant Nos. 20, 21 and 22 contained another OmpT cleavage peptide WGGRWARKKGTI (SEQ ID NO:49).

The mutation sequences were designed in the forward and reverse oligo primers listed in Table 4. In the first step PCR, the 5′-fragment was amplified by PCR using the primer 5chiT2PT7 and the reverse primers (Table 4). The 5′fragment included T7 promoter, the constant region of the N-terminal sequence and the mutation site. The 3′-fragment was also amplified in the first step using forward primers (Table 3) and 3chiT2TT7. The 3′ fragment included the mutation site, the constant C-terminal region and T7 terminator sequences. In the second step PCR, the 5′-fragment and 3′-fragment DNA were assembled by overlapping PCR using a single primer 5chiT2 as described above.

22 RF1 variants (Table 3) were expressed using PCR templates in cell-extracts with or without OmpT. Among the ARRG (SEQ ID NO:47) insertion variants, No.9 showed the highest sensitivity to OmpT digestion. Variant Nos. 17, 18 and 19, which contained the OmpT cleavage peptide WLAARRGRG (SEQ ID NO:48), were partially digested by OmpT. However, they were much less sensitive than variant Nos. 20, 21 and 22, which contained the OmpT cleavage peptide WGGRWARKKGTI (SEQ ID NO:49). Variant Nos. 9, 20, 21 and 22 were selected as the most sensitive RF1 variants to OmpT digestion in these 22 constructs.

TABLE 3 OmpT cleavage peptide sequences  inserted in the switch loop of RF1 SEQ  ID No, Peptide** NO:  *0 QQAEASTRRNLLGSGDRS  4   1 QARRGSTRRNLLGSGDRS 26   2 QQARRGTRRNLLGSGDRS 27   3 QQAARRGRRNLLGSGDRS 28   4 QQAEARRGRNLLGSGDRS 29   5 QQAEAARRGNLLGSGDRS 30   6 QQAEASARRGLLGSGDRS 31   7 QQAEASTARRGLGSGDRS 32   8 QQAEASTRARRGGSGDRS 33   9 QQAEASTRRARRGSGDRS 34  10 QQAEASTRRNARRGGDRS 35  11 QQAEASTRRNLARRGDRS 36  12 QQAEASTRRNLLARRGRS 37  13 QQAEASTRRNLLGARRGS 38  14 QQAEASTRRNLLGSARRG 39  15 QQAEASTRRNLLGSGARR 40  16 QQAEASTRRRLLGSGDRS  6  17 QQAWLAARRGRGGSGDRS 41  18 QQAEWLAARRGRGSGDRS 42  19 QQAEAWLAARRGRGGDRS 43  20 QQWGGRWARKKGTIGDRS 44  21 QQAWGGRWARKKGTIDRS 45  22 QQAEWGGRWARKKGTIRS 46 *WT switch loop peptide sequence (Q287 to S304) **The inserted amino acid or peptide sequences are underlined

TABLE 4 Forward and reverse primer sequences for OmpT cleavage peptide insertion SEQ ID No. NO: Forward  0 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACT  92 TACAACTTCCCG  1 CGCCGTGGTTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  93 CCCG  2 GCACGCCGTGGTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  94 CCCG  3 GCCGCACGCCGTGGTCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  95 CCCG  4 GCCGAAGCACGCCGTGGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  96 CCCG  5 GCCGAAGCGGCACGCCGTGGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACT  97 TCCCG  6 GCCGAAGCGTCTGCACGCCGTGGTCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  98 CCCG  7 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCGCACGCCGTGGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT  99 CCCG  8 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTGCACGCCGTGGTGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 100 CCCG  9 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTGCACGCCGTGGTAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 101 CCCG 10 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACGCACGCCGTGGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 102 CCCG 11 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGGCACGCCGTGGTGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 103 CCCG 12 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGCACGCCGTGGTCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTTC 104 CCG 13 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGGCACGCCGTGGTAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 105 CCCG 14 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGCACGCCGTGGTGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 106 CCCG 15 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGCACGCCGTGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 107 CCCG 16 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGTCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 108 CCCG 17 GCCTGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACT 109 TCCCG 18 GCCGAATGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACT 110 TCCCG 19 GCCGAAGCGTGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACT 111 TCCCG 20 TGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 112 CCCG 21 GCCTGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTGATCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 113 CCCG 22 GCCGAATGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTCGCAGCGACCGTAACCGTACTTACAACTT 114 CCCG Reverse  0 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 115 AGC  1 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGAACCACGGCGTGCTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 116 CAGC  2 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTACCACGGCGTGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 117 AGC  3 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGACCACGGCGTGCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 118 AGC  4 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACCACGGCGTGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 119 AGC  5 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACCACGGCGTGCCGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC 120 ATTTCAGCAGC  6 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGACCACGGCGTGCAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 121 AGC  7 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACCACGGCGTGCGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 122 AGC  8 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCACCACGGCGTGCACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 123 AGC  9 GCTGCGATCGCCACTACCACGGCGTGCACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 124 CAGC 10 GCTGCGATCGCCACCACGGCGTGCGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 125 CAGC 11 GCTGCGATCACCACGGCGTGCCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 126 CAGC 12 GCTGCGACCACGGCGTGCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 127 CAGC 13 GCTACCACGGCGTGCCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 128 CAGC 14 ACCACGGCGTGCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 129 AGC 15 ACGGCGTGCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 130 CAGC 16 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGACGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAG 131 CAGC 17 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCAGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 132 AGC 18 GCTGCGATCGCCACTGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCATTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 133 AGC 19 GCTGCGATCGCCGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 134 AGC 20 GCTGCGATCGCCAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCACTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 135 AGC 21 GCTGCGATCAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCAGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 136 AGC 22 GCTGCGAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCATTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGC 137 AGC *Mutation sequences are underlined.

Example 2

Having demonstrated that RF1 was successfully modified to be cleavable by OmpT1 protease, this example describes the construction of recombinant bacterial strains that express both modified RF1 and intact OmpT1. The purpose of this example is to show that RF1 variants expressed by the recombinant strains are cleaved in cell-free extracts from the recombinant strains that express OmpT1.

Oligonucleotide-Mediated Allelic Replacement

In order to generate bacterial strains that express the modified RF1 proteins described herein, oligonucleotide-mediated allelic replacement (OMAR) was used to insert the RF1 mutations into the bacterial genome. The OMAR protocol was adapted from a previously reported protocol (Wang and Church, Methods in Enzymology, 2011, 498, 409-426). Briefly, SBJY001 containing the pKD46 plasmid were grown in 3 ml LB and 50 μg/mL ampicillin at 30° C. to OD₆₀₀ 0.3. The cells were then induced with 1 mM L-arabinose at 37° C. for 45 min. The cell pellet was washed 2× with cold 10% glycerol and resuspended in 30 μL cold 10% glycerol. 5 μM of each oligo was added to the resuspended cells. Synthetic oligos (Integrated DNA Technologies) were 90 base pairs long and designed to anneal to the lagging strand during DNA replication (see Table 5). The cells were electroporated at 1800V for 5 ms in a 1 mm cuvette. They were then recovered in 3 mL LB and 50 μg/ml Amp. This process was repeated for 13 cycles. Cells were diluted and plated on LB agar plates and grown at 37° C. overnight.

MAMA PCR to Identify Bacterial Strains with the Desired Mutations

Bacterial colonies were screened using an adaptation of Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR to identify strains with the desired mutations in RF1 (Cha et. Al, PCR Methods and Applications, 1992, 2, 14-20). Briefly, a universal 5′ primer was used in conjunction with a 3′ primer that was specific for each mutation to differentiate between a mutant and a WT colony (see Table 5). The oligos were ordered from Eurofins MWG Operon. Platinum® Blue PCR Supermix (Invitrogen) was used to run the MAMA PCR. The PCR was run at 95° C. 3 min, 30× (95° C. 15 sec, 58° C. 20 sec, 72° C. 1 min) and 72° C. 5 min. The PCR products were run on a 96 well E-gel (Invitrogen) to visualize any bands.

Extract Preparation and Western Blot

Strains SBHS015, SBHS016 and SBHS017, that were engineered to contain modified RF1 variants, were grown up in 500 mL TB at 37° C. shaking overnight in Tunair shake flasks. The cells were pelleted at 6000×g for 15 minutes. The cell pellet was washed 2× with 6 mL S30 Buffer (10 mM Tris, 14 mM magnesium acetate and 60 mM potassium acetate): 1 g cell pellet. The cells were then resuspended in 2 mL S30 Buffer: 1 g cell pellet. The resuspended cells were lysed using a homogenizer. The extract was then clarified 2× at 15,000×g for 30 minutes. The extract was activated for 1, 2 or 3 hrs in a 30° C. water bath. An anti-RF1 antibody was made by inoculating rabbits with purified recombinant E. coli RF1 protein that was then purified using an affinity matrix (YenZym Antibodies LLC). The specificity of the antibody was confirmed using ELISAs and Western Blots of the recombinant protein. The cell pellet, lysate and extract samples were run on a SDS-PAGE gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane using the iBlot® system (Invitrogen). The primary anti-RF1 antibody was used followed by a secondary anti-rabbit alkaline-phosphatase conjugated antibody (Invitrogen). The bands were visualized using an alkaline-phosphatase chromogenic substrate solution containing 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-1-phosphate and nitroblue tetrazolium (Invitrogen).

TABLE 5 Sequences of oligonucleotides for OMAR and MAMA PCR. SED ID Oligo name Oligo Sequence (5′ to 3′) NO: 1opRF1 KR GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCaAGac 140 (OMAR) GcTTtCGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC 1opRF1 KRR GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCacgacG 141 (OMAR) cTTtCGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC 1opRF1 KRK GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCottacG 142 (OMAR) cTTtCGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC 3KR op-PCR GCG ATC CCC TGA ACC AAG ACG C 143 (MAMA) 3 KRR op- CGATCcCCtgaaCCacgacGc 144 PCR (MAMA) 3 KRK op- TGCGATCcCCtgaaCCcttacGc 145 PCR (MAMA) 5 RF1 op- CGTGACGGGGATAACGAACGCC 146 PCR (MAMA)

Three recombinant bacterial strains were identified that successfully incorporated mutations of RF1 into their genomes. Strain SBHS015 contains the N296K/L297R double mutation variant of RF1, referred to as variant A13. Strain SBHS016 contains the N296K/L297R/L298R triple mutation variant of RF1, referred to as variant A18. Strain SBHS017 contains the N296K/L297R/L298K triple mutation variant of RF1, referred to as variant A17. All three strains also express intact OmpT1, as they are derived from the parent strain SBJY001. When the recombinant strains were lysed and incubated for various time periods (0, 1, 2 and 3 hours), the modified RF1 protein variants were efficiently cleaved at all time points tested by the cell-free extract, as determined by Western blot analysis (data not shown). In contrast, cleavage of unmodified, wild-type RF1 by strain SBJY001 was not detected over the same time periods, indicating that wild-type RF1 is not efficiently cleaved in cell-free extracts containing intact OmpT1.

This example demonstrates that recombinant bacterial strains were engineered to express modified RF1 variants, and that the RF1 variants were cleaved by cell-free extracts from OmpT1 positive strains.

EXAMPLE 3

Example 3 demonstrates that intact RF1 proteins modified to include OmpT1 cleavage sites in the switch loop region have wild-type RF1 function.

Functional Test of Recombinant RF1 Variants

In order to test the function of the recombinant RF1 variants described herein, the ability of the RF1 variants to terminate translation at an amber codon was determined. An Fc protein with a TAG mutation was expressed in the presence of 500 nM of purified recombinant E. coli wild-type or mutant RF1 and 2 μM non-natural amino acid in SBHS002 extract (an OmpT deleted strain). The 60 μL cell free reactions were run at 30° C. for 5 hrs in the presence of ¹⁴C-Leu. The final reactions were centrifuged to obtain the soluble fraction, run on a reducing SDS-PAGE gel, transferred to a PVDF membrane (Invitrogen), and exposed to a phosphoscreen overnight. The phosphoscreen was visualized using a Storm Imager and ImageQuant was used to determine the relative band intensities. Relative activities of mutants were determined by comparing the amount of truncated Fc protein to the negative control (no exogenous RF1 added) and the positive control (WT RF1 added). The percent truncated protein was determined using the equation: (truncated protein counts/total protein counts)×100%. Relative RF1 activity was determined using the equation: [(variant truncated protein−negative control truncated protein)/(WT RF1 truncated protein−negative control truncated protein)]×100%.

As shown in FIG. 1, RF1 variants described herein have RF1 activity, as demonstrated by truncation of translation when incorporating a non-native amino acid (pAzF) at an amber codon introduced at position S378 of the Fc protein. In particular, the RF1 variant A13 (having N296K/L297R substitutions) possessed similar activity levels as wild-type RF1.

This example demonstrates that intact RF1 proteins modified to include OmpT cleavage sites in the switch loop region have functional RF1 activity (e.g., reduced amber suppression).

Example 4

Example 4 demonstrates increased incorporation of non-natural amino acids into the IgG heavy chain of Herceptin protein using cell free extracts comprising RF1 variants having OmpT1 cleavage sites in the switch loop region. The cell free extracts are from the bacterial strains described in Example 2.

Methods Site Directed Mutagenesis of Herceptin Heavy Chain

To introduce a nnAA into the heavy chain of Herceptin, the DNA template encoding Herceptin was mutated to introduce amber codons at different positions of the coding sequence. Site directed mutagenesis was performed using a pYD plasmid containing the coding region of Herceptin6×His at the C-terminus as the DNA template and synthetic oligonucleotides (Operon) containing amber codons in both sense and antisense directions (Table 6). Oligonucleotides of each mutation were mixed with the DNA template and Phusion® polymerase (Thermo, Cat# F531s) to a final volume of 20 μL. The final concentration of each component was 0.16 μM of each oligonucleotide, 0.5 ng/μL template DNA, 0.02 U/μL Phusion® polymerase in HF buffer (Thermo) containing 1.5 mM MgCl₂ and 200 μM dNTP. Mixture was incubated at 98° C. 5 m, 18 PCR cycles (98° C. 30 s, 55° C. 1 m, 72° C. 4 m), 10 m at 72° C. and stored at 4° C. for up to 16 h. DpnI (NEB) was added to the mixture to final concentration of 0.6 U/μL and incubated for 37° C. 1 h. 5 μL of each mixture was transformed into 50 μL of Chemically Competent E. coli cells according to manufactures procedure (Invitrogen, MultiShot™ 96-Well Plate TOP10). Transformed cells were recovered in 200 μL SOC (Invitrogen) 37° C. 1 h and plated onto Luria-Bertani (LB) agar supplemented with 50 μg/mL kanamycin (Teknova). After 24 h at 37° C., colonies were picked using Qpix2 (Genetix) into 200 μL LB with 7.5% glycerol and 50 μg/mL kanamycin, and grown at 37° C. for 24 h, 20 μL of culture was used for rolling circle amplification and sequenced by primer extension using T7 (5′-TAATACGACTCACTATAGG-3′; SEQ ID NO:147) and T7 term (5′-GCTAGTTATTGCTCAGCG-3′; SEQ ID NO:148) primers (Sequetech). Sequence was analyzed by Sequencher (Gene Codes).

TABLE 6 Primers for introducing amber codons at the indicated  positions of Herceptin. Sense Oligo Antisense Oligo Variant (SEQ ID NO:) (SEQ ID NO:) SP-00067_V422 CGTTGGCAGCAGGGTAATTAGTT CATAACGCTGCAGCTGAACTAA CAGCTGCAGCGTTATG TTACCCTGCTGCCAACG (149) (150) SP-00127_S415 GCAAGCTGACCGTCGATAAATA CATTACCCTGCTGCCAACGCTA GCGTTGGCAGCAGGGTAATG TTTATCGACGGTCAGCTTGC (151) (152) SP-00128_Q418 CGATAAAAGCCGTTGGTAGCAG CTGAACACATTACCCTGCTACC GGTAATGTGTTCAG AACGGCTTTTATCG (153) (154) SP-00114_P343 GCAAAGCGAAAGGCCAATAGCG GACCTGCGGTTCACGCTATTGG TGAACCGCAGGTC CCTTTCGCTTTGC (155) (156) SP-00112_G341 GACGATCAGCAAAGCGAAATAG CTGCGGTTCACGCGGTTGCTAT CAACCGCGTGAACCGCAG TTCGCTTTGCTGATCGTC (157) (158) SP-00102_K320 GCTGAATGGTAAAGAATACTAG CCTTGTTGCTCACTTTGCACTAG TGCAAAGTGAGCAACAAGG TATTCTTTACCATTCAGC (159) (160) SP-00066_F404 CTGGACAGCGACGGTAGCTAGT CAGCTTGCTATACAGAAACTAG TTCTGTATAGCAAGCTG CTACCGTCGCTGTCCAG (161) (162) SP-00113_Q342 GCAAAGCGAAAGGCTAGCCGCG CTGCGGTTCACGCGGCTAGCCT TGAACCGCAG TTCGCTTTGC  (163) (164) SP-00096_T299 GTGAGGAACAATACAATAGCTA GCACGCTCACTACGCGATACTA GTATCGCGTAGTGAGCGTGC GCTATTGTATTGTTCCTCAC (165) (166) SP-00120_Y373 GGTGAAGGGCTTTTAGCCGAGC GCGATGTCGCTCGGCTAAAAGC GACATCGC CCTTCACC (167) (168) SP-00094_N297 CGCGTGAGGAACAATACTAGAG CACTACGCGATACGTGCTCTAG CACGTATCGCGTAGTG TATTGTTCCTCACGCG (169) (170) SP-00125_F405 GACAGCGACGGTAGCTTCTAGCT GTCAGCTTGCTATACAGCTAGA GTATAGCAAGCTGAC AGCTACCGTCGCTGTC (171) (172)

Extract Preparation

E. coli strain SBHS016 with modified RF1 variant A18 was harvested at a final density of 40-55 OD, and centrifuged at 14,000 g in a Sharples Model AS14 centrifuge for 10 minutes to remove spent medium. The cell paste was re-suspended to homogeneity with a ratio of 6 mL/g cells S30 buffer (14 mM MgAcO, 60 mM KAcO, 10 mM Tris), and centrifuged again at 14,000 g for 10 minutes using the Sharples AS14 for further removal of spent medium. The resulting clarified cell paste was re-suspended in S30 with a ratio of 2 mL/g cells, and the cells were lysed by single pass through an Avestin Emulsiflex C-55 homogenizer at 17,000 psi. The homogenate is clarified by centrifugation at 14,000 g twice for 30 minutes each, and the resulting pellets were discarded. The resultant cell extract solution was incubated at 30° C. for 2 hours, and then centrifuged again at 14,000 g using the Sharples AS14 for particulate removal. This final solution was frozen in LN₂ and stored at −80° C. until needed for cell-free protein synthesis.

Cell-free extracts were thawed to room temperature and incubated with 50 uM iodoacetamide for 30 min. Cell-free reactions were run at 30 C for up to 10 h containing 30% (v/v) iodoacetamide-treated extract with 8 mM magnesium glutamate, 10 mM ammonium glutamate, 130 mM potassium glutamate, 35 mM sodium pyruvate, 1.2 mM AMP, 0.86 mM each of GMP, UMP, and CMP, 2 mM amino acids (1 mM for tyrosine), 4 mM sodium oxalate, 1 mM putrescine, 1.5 mM spermidine, 15 mM potassium phosphate,100 nM T7 RNAP, 2.5 uM E. coli DsbC, 5 uM yeast PDI, 2 mM oxidized (GSSG) glutathione and 15 uM yeast tRNA pN3F aminoacyl tRNA. To label synthesized protein with ¹⁴C, 3.33% (v/v) 1-[U-¹⁴C]-leucine (300 mCi/mmole; GE Life Sciences, Piscataway, N.J.) was added to reaction as well. The concentrations of heavy chain TAG variant plasmid and wild type light chain plasmid were 7.5 ug/mL and 2.5 ug/mL respectively. As control, the cell-free expression of wild type light chain was done in parallel with TAG variants.

12 difficult to suppress sites were selected from heavy chain based on our internal study, including N297, T299, K320, G341, Q342, P343, Y373, F404, F405, S415, Q418, and V422. S136 was chosen as positive control, which has relatively high suppression. Two cell extracts, from strains SBJY001 (which expresses wild-type RF1) and SBHS016 (which expresses modified RF1), were used to compare the capability of the extracts to incorporate nnAA into these difficult to suppress sites.

60 uL cell-free reactions were run in 24 well plates. After the cell-free reactions were completed, TCA precipitation was performed to measure total and soluble proteins synthesized. In parallel, non reducing and reducing gels were for autoradiography assay. For non reducing gel, 4 uL of sample, 8 uL of DI H₂O and 4 uL of 4× LDS buffer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) were mixed before being loaded on gel. For reducing gel, 4 uL of sample, 1 uL of 1 M DTT, 7 uL of DI H₂O and 4 uL of 4× LDS buffer (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) were mixed and heated in hot blot at 70 C for 5 minutes. Samples were analyzed by 4˜12% Bis-Tris SDS-PAGE gels (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Gels were dried and analyzed by autoradiography using a Storm 840 PhosphoImager after about 16 hours exposure.

${{IgG}\mspace{14mu} {yield}} = \frac{\begin{matrix} {{IgG}\mspace{14mu} {full}\mspace{14mu} {length}\mspace{14mu} {band}\mspace{14mu} {intensity}} \\ {{from}\mspace{14mu} {non}\mspace{14mu} {reducing}\mspace{14mu} {gel}} \end{matrix}}{\begin{matrix} {{the}\mspace{14mu} {sum}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {all}\mspace{14mu} {bands}\mspace{14mu} {intensity}\mspace{14mu} {from}} \\ {{reducing}\mspace{20mu} {gel} \times \left\lbrack {{soluble}\mspace{14mu} {protein}} \right\rbrack} \end{matrix}}$

where the band intensity is determined by ImageQuant™ software and the [soluble protein] was estimated by TCA precipitation method.

The suppressions of amber codon at different sites of heavy chain were determined by [¹⁴C]-autoradiograhy of reducing SDS-AGE gels. Full length wild type heavy chain and suppressed heavy chain TAG variants run at 49 Kd on SDS-PAGE. Non suppressed (truncated) heavy chain of TAG variants run at a lower molecular weight.

The  suppression  of  TAG  in  heavy  chain  is  predicted  by: ${suppression} = \frac{\begin{matrix} {{band}\mspace{14mu} {intensity}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {suppressed}\mspace{14mu} {heavy}} \\ {{chain}\mspace{14mu} {TAG}\mspace{14mu} {variant}} \end{matrix}}{{band}\mspace{14mu} {intensity}\mspace{14mu} {of}\mspace{14mu} {wild}\mspace{14mu} {type}\mspace{14mu} {heavy}\mspace{14mu} {chain}}$

where the band intensity is determined by ImageQuant™ software.

To generate materials for purification, the reactions were scaled up to 1 mL in 10 cm petri dishes under the same condition.

Production of tRNA

Transcriptions of all tRNA^(phe) _(CUA) transcripts were done under the following conditions: 20-50 ng/μl pYD318-tRNAphe AAA-HDV-T7trm, 40 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl₂, 10 mM DTT, 4 mM dNTPs, 2.5 mM spermidine, 1 U/ml PPiase, 2.5 mg/ml T7 RNA polymerase, and 40 mM Tris (pH 7.9). tRNA molecules were separated from parental RNA and HDV ribozyme RNA product by gel filtration chromatography using a tandem Sephacryl 100 or 300 resin in XK50/100 columns. Sizing columns were developed in 50 mM Tris (pH 6.5) and 250 mM NaCl. Fractions containing tRNA were pooled, mixed with 1/10 volume of 3 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2), and an equal volume of isopropanol was added to precipitate the RNA. tRNA was stored as a pellet or resuspended in 10 mM Tris (pH 6.5) and 0.1 mM EDTA.

tRNAs for use in aminoacylation reactions are treated with T4 polynucleotide kinase in 100 mM MES pH 5.5, 10 mM MgCl₂ and 10 mM 2-mercaptoethanol for 1 hr to remove the 2′,3′-cyclic phosphate leaving 2′,3′-OH groups at the 3′ terminus of the tRNA. T4 PNK treated tRNA was phenol:chloroform:isoamylalcohol extracted and buffer exchanged using a G25 column which removed inorganic phosphate and excess phenol. tRNA was isopropanol or ethanol precipitated, resuspended in 10 mM Tris (pH 6.5) and 0.1 mM EDTA. The tRNA was refolded by heating the tRNA to 70° C. for 20 minutes. Then 10 mM MgCl₂ was added and the mixture was slowly equilibrated to room temperature.

HDV ribozyme cleavage of tRNA transcripts, while producing homogenous 3′ ends, leaves a 2′-3′ cyclic phosphate moiety that interferes with subsequent aminoacylation. It has been found that this can be removed using T4 polynucleotide kinase (PNK). 40 μM tRNA was incubated at 37° C. with 0.050 mg/ml PNK in 50 mM MES (pH 5.5), 10 mM MgCl₂, 300 mM NaCl, and 0.1 mM EDTA. Dephosphorylation was assayed by two different methods. Dephosphoryation was confirmed using denaturing gel electrophoresis. As has been reported, dephophoylated tRNA has a reduced mobility in acid/urea gels electrophoresis. Aliquots containing 3 μg of dephosphorylated tRNA were diluted 2-fold in loading buffer (100 mM sodium acetate (pH 5.2), 7 M urea, 1 mg/ml bromophenol blue dye) and loaded on a 6.5% 19:1 acrylamide, 100 mM sodium acetate (pH 5.2), 7 M urea gel (40 cm×34 cm) and electrophoresed overnight at 40 W. Gels were stained using 0.06% Methylene Blue, 0.5 M sodium acetate (pH 5.2) for 30 minutes and destained with deionized water. Both assays indicated significant dephosphorylation after only 5 minutes. Dephosphorylation was essentially complete after 1 hour tRNA was refolded by heating to 70° C., addition of 10 mM MgCl₂, and then slowly cooled to room temperature. RNA concentration was measured using a Nano-Drop 1000 spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific) and confirmed by gel electrophoresis.

Amber Suppressor tRNA Aminoacylation

The conditions for non-natural aminoacylation are 50 mM HEPES pH 8.1, 40 mM KCl, 75 mM MgCl₂, 5 mM ATP, 8-40 μM tRNA^(phe) _(CUA), 10 mM DTT, 2 mM amino acid (pN₃F), and 40 μM PheRS T415A D243A. Determination of the percent aminoacylation of tRNA^(phe) _(CUA) is accomplished by HPLC HIC resolution of the aminoacylated and unaminoacylated moieties of tRNA. This method allows us to monitor the extent of aminoacylation of our tRNA after is has been processed and is ready to be used for incorporation into proteins. Reactions are incubated at 37° C. for 15 min and quenched with 2.5 volumes of 300 mM sodium acetate pH 5.5. The quenched sample is extracted with 25:24:1 phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol pH 5.2 (ambion) and vortexed for 2 min. These are then centrifuged at 14,000 rcf for 10-30 min at 4° C. to separate the aqueous (tRNA) and organic phases (protein). The aqueous phase (containing tRNA) is removed and added to a pre-equilibrated (300 mM NaOAC) G25 sephadex resin size exclusion column that separates based on the size of the molecule. The elutant is mixed with 2.5 volumes of 100% ethanol and incubated at −80° C. for 15-30 minutes and centrifuged at 12,000-14,000 rcf for 30-45 minutes. The aminoacylated tRNA is now in a pellet that can be stored at −80° C. or resuspended in a slightly acidic buffer for injection into the HPLC and/or use in OCFS reactions.

The HPLC C5 HIC column is equilibrated in buffer A (50 mM potassium phosphate and 1.5 M ammonium sulfate pH 5.7) until the UV trace doesn't fluctuate from zero. 1-10 μg tRNA is mixed with 100 μl of 2× buffer A (100 mM potassium phosphate and 3 M ammonium sulfate). The sample is injected and run in a gradient from buffer A to buffer B (50 mM potassium phosphate and 5% isopropanol) over 50 minutes.

Incorporation of pN₃F into turboGFP TAG Mutants:

To monitor fluorescence of Green Fluorescent protein in a construct where there is an amber codon (stop codon), the DNA encoding turboGFP (Evrogen, Russia) was cloned into our OCFS expression vector pYD317. A stop codon (TAG) was inserted by overlapping PCR mutagenesis at the nucleotides corresponding to the amino acid Lysine 37, Tyrosine 50, and Glutamate 205 (and combinations) according to the crystal structure of turboGFP (pdb 2G6X). Therefore any suppression of the stop codon with a charged tRNA will result in fluorescence. Reactions were incubated at 30° C. in a spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices, SpectraMaxM5) for five hours with an adhesive cover (VWR, 9503130) and fluorescence intensity measured at 10-minute intervals, λ_(Ex)=476 nm and λ_(Em)=510. OCFS reaction mix was immediately added to microplate with inhibitor for a 25 μL final reaction volume containing 30% S30 extract, 24 ug/mL T7 RNA polymerase, 1 mM L-tyrosine (Sigma, T8566), pre-mix*, 10-60 μM pN₃F-tRNA^(phe) _(CUA) or uncharged tRNA^(phe) _(CUA), and 3 nM turboGFP plasmid in DEPC-treated water (G Biosciences, 786-109). A positive control reaction using turboGFP without the stop codon was used to ensure that the reactions proceeded with rates similar previously observed, while reactions containing turboGFP Y50TAG were also run without tRNA to ensure no fluorescence was detected (negative control). Suppression efficiencies were calculated by comparison of positive control fluorescence to the amber codon containing template fluorescence.

As shown in FIG. 2, expression of the IgG heavy chain TAG variants in the SBJY001 cell free extract, which expresses OmpT1 and wild-type RF-1, resulted in relatively poor yield of soluble full length IgG. In contrast, expression of the IgG heavy chain TAG variants in the SBHS016 cell free extract, which expresses OmpT1 and a modified RF-1 protein (variant A18) containing the triple substitution N296K/L297R/L298R, resulted in relatively high yield of full length IgG. Further, as shown in FIG. 3, expression of the IgG heavy chain TAG variants in the SBJY001 cell free extract resulted in relatively poor amber suppression (i.e., the heavy chain protein was truncated). In contrast, expression of the IgG heavy chain TAG variants in the SBHS016 cell free extract resulted in relatively high amber suppression (i.e., much less of the heavy chain protein was truncated), which corresponds to the substantially higher yields of full length IgG observed in FIG. 2.

This example demonstrates that OmpT1 cleavage of RF1 provides a dramatic improvement in the yield of heavy chains incorporating the desired nnAA at an amber codon in the coding sequence, as compared to intact RF1 that is not cleavable by OmpT1.

It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. All publications, sequence accession numbers, patents, and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

LIST OF SEQUENCES

Escherichia coli Release Factor 1 (RF1) SEQ ID NO: 1 MKPSIVAKLEALHERHEEVQALLGDAQTIADQERFRALSREYAQLSDVSRCFTDWQ QVQEDIETAQMMLDDPEMREMAQDELREAKEKSEQLEQQLQVLLLPKDPDDERNA FLEVRAGTGGDEAALFAGDLFRMYSRYAEARRWRVEIMSASEGEHGGYKEIIAKISG DGVYGRLKFESGGHRVQRVPATESQGRIHTSACTVAVMPELPDAELPDINPADLRID TFRSSGAGGQHVNTTDSAIRITHLPTGIVVECQDERSQHKNKAKALSVLGARIHAAE MAKRQQAEASTRRNLLGSGDRSDRNRTYNFPQGRVTDHRINLTLYRLDEVMEGKLD MLIEPIIQEHQADQLAALSEQE Escherichia coli Release Factor 2 (RF2) SEQ ID NO: 2 MFEINPVNNRIQDLTERSDVLRGYLDYDAKKERLEEVNAELEQPDVWNEPERAQAL GKERSSLEAVVDTLDQMKQGLEDVSGLLELAVEADDEETFNEAVAELDALEEKLAQ LEFRRMFSGEYDSADCYLDIQAGSGGTEAQDWASMLERMYLRWAESRGFKTEIIEES EGEVAGIKSVTIKISGDYAYGWLRTETGVHRLVRKSPFDSGGRRHTSFSSAFVYPEVD DDIDIEINPADLRIDVYRTSGAGGQHVNRTESAVRITHIPTGIVTQCQNDRSQHKNKD QAMKQMKAKLYELEMQKKNAEKQAMEDNKSDIGWGSQIRSYVLDDSRIKDLRTGV ETRNTQAVLDGSLDQFIEASLKAGL Escherichia coli Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT) (signal peptide underlined) SEQ ID NO: 3 MRAKLLGIVLTTPIAISSFASTETLSFTPDNINADISLGTLSGKTKERVYLAEEGGRKVS QLDWKFNNAAIIKGAINWDLMPQISIGAAGWTTLGSRGGNMVDQDWMDSSNPGTW TDESRHPDTQLNYANEFDLNIKGWLLNEPNYRLGLMAGYQESRYSFTARGGSYIYSS EEGFRDDIGSFPNGERAIGYKQRFKMPYIGLTGSYRYEDFELGGTFKYSGWVESSDN DEHYDPGKRITYRSKVKDQNYYSVAVNAGYYVTPNAKVYVEGAWNRVTNKKGNT SLYDHNNNTSDYSKNGAGIENYNFITTAGLKYTF Switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 4 QQAEASTRRNLLGSGDRS N296K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 5 QQAEASTRRKLLGSGDRS N296R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 6 QQAEASTRRRLLGSGDRS L297K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 7 QQAEASTRRNKLGSGDRS L297R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 8 QQAEASTRRNRLGSGDRS L297V mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 9 QQAEASTRRNVLGSGDRS L298K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 10 QQAEASTRRNLKGSGDRS L298R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 11 QQAEASTRRNLRGSGDRS N296K, L297K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 12 QQAEASTRRKKLGSGDRS N296K, L297R = A13 mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 13 QQAEASTRRKRLGSGDRS N296K, L297V mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 14 QQAEASTRRKVLGSGDRS N296K, L297V mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 15 QQAEASTRRRKLGSGDRS N296R, L297R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 16 QQAEASTRRRRLGSGDRS N296R, L297V mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 17 QQAEASTRRRVLGSGDRS N296K, L297K, L298K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 18 QQAEASTRRKKKGSGDRS N296K, L297K, L298R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 19 QQAEASTRRKKRGSGDRS N296K, L297R, L298K = A17 mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 20 QQAEASTRRKRKGSGDRS N296K, L297R, L298R = A18 mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 21 QQAEASTRRKRRGSGDRS N296R, L297R, L298R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 22 QQAEASTRRRRRGSGDRS N296R, L297K, L298R mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 23 QQAEASTRRRKRGSGDRS N296R, L297R, L298K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 24 QQAEASTRRRRKGSGDRS N296R, L297K, L298K mutation in the switch loop region of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 25 QQAEASTRRRKKGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 26 QARRGSTRRNLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 27 QQARRGTRRNLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 28 QQAARRGRRNLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 29 QQAEARRGRNLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 30 QQAEAARRGNLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 31 QQAEASARRGLLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 32 QQAEASTARRGLGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 33 QQAEASTRARRGGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 34 QQAEASTRRARRGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 35 QQAEASTRRNARRGGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 36 QQAEASTRRNLARRGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 37 QQAEASTRRNLLARRGRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 38 QQAEASTRRNLLGARRGS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 39 QQAEASTRRNLLGSARRG OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 40 QQAEASTRRNLLGSGARR OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 41 QQAWLAARRGRGGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 42 QQAEWLAARRGRGSGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 43 QQAEAWLAARRGRGGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 44 QQWGGRWARKKGTIGDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 45 QQAWGGRWARKKGTIDRS OmpT cleavage peptide sequence inserted in the switch loop of Release Factor 1 (RF1), amino acids 287 to 304 SEQ ID NO: 46 QQAEWGGRWARKKGTIRS OmpT cleavage peptide SEQ ID NO: 47 ARRG OmpT cleavage peptide SEQ ID NO: 48 WLAARRGRG OmpT cleavage peptide SEQ ID NO: 49 WGGRWARKKGTI C-terminal sequence of short form of λ phage Gam protein (GamS) SEQ ID NO: 50 GGSHHHHHH short form of λ phage Gam protein (GamS) gene amplification primer SEQ ID NO: 51 ATATATCATATGAACGCTTATTACATTCAGGATCGTCTTGAG short form of λ phage Gam protein (GamS) gene amplification primer SEQ ID NO: 52 ATATATGTCGACTTAATGATGATGATGATGATGAGAACCCCCTACCTCTGAATCA ATATCAACCTGGTGGTG 5′-fragment including T7 promoter, constant region of the N-terminal sequence and the mutation site first step PCR amplification primer 5chiT2PT7 SEQ ID NO: 53 GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGGCCGATTCATTAATGCAGCTGGCACGAC AGG 3′-fragment including mutation site, constant C-terminal region and T7 terminator sequences first step PCR amplification primer 3chiT2TT7 SEQ ID NO: 54 GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGGCGGTGAGTTTTCTCCTTCATTACAGAA ACGGC single primer 5chiT2 for 5′-fragment and 3′-fragment assembly by overlapping PCR SEQ ID NO: 55 GCGTACTAGCGTACCACGTGGCTGGTGG WT RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 56 GCTCGATGATCCTGAAATGCGTGAGATGGCGCAGG M74R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 57 GCTCGATGATCCTGAACGCCGTGAGATGGCGCAGG E76K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 58 CGATGATCCTGAAATGCGTAAGATGGCGCAGGATGAAC E84K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 59 CAGGATGAACTGCGCAAAGCTAAAGAAAAAAGCGAGCAAC A85R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 60 CAGGATGAACTGCGCGAACGTAAAGAAAAAAGCGAGCAAC E87R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 61 GGATGAACTGCGCGAAGCTAAACGTAAAAGCGAGCAACTGGAAC E108R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 62 GCCAAAAGATCCTGATGACCGTCGTAACGCCTTCCTCG T293R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 63 CAACAGGCCGAAGCGTCTCGCCGTCGTAACCTGC N296K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 64 GCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACTGCTGGGGAGTGGCG S304K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 65 GGGAGTGGCGATCGCAAGGACCGTAACCGTACTTAC N296K/L297V RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 66 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAAGTTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296K/L297K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 67 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAAAAGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296K/L297R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 68 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296R/L297V RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 69 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCGTTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296R/L297K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 70 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCAAGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296R/L297R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 71 CGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGCCGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGC N296K/L297R/L298K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 72 CAGGCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTAAGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGAC C N296K/L297R/L298R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening forward primer SEQ ID NO: 73 CAGGCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAAACGTCGCGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGAC C WT RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 74 CCTGCGCCATCTCACGCATTTCAGGATCATCGAGC M74R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 75 CCTGCGCCATCTCACGGCGTTCAGGATCATCGAGC E76K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 76 GTTCATCCTGCGCCATCTTACGCATTTCAGGATCATCG E84K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 77 GTTGCTCGCTTTTTTCTTTAGCTTTGCGCAGTTCATCCTG A85R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 78 GTTGCTCGCTTTTTTCTTTACGTTCGCGCAGTTCATCCTG E87R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 79 GTTCCAGTTGCTCGCTTTTACGTTTAGCTTCGCGCAGTTCATCC E108R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 80 CGAGGAAGGCGTTACGACGGTCATCAGGATCTTTTGGC T293R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 81 GCAGGTTACGACGGCGAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTG N296K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 82 CGCCACTCCCCAGCAGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGC S304K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 83 GTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCCTTGCGATCGCCACTCCC N296K/L297V RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 84 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGAACTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296K/L297K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 85 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCTTTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296K/L297R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 86 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296R/L297V RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 87 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGAACGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296R/L297K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 88 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCTTGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296R/L297R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 89 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACGGCGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCG N296K/L297R/L298K RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 90 GGTCGCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCTTACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTG N296K/L297R/L298R RF1 variant OmpT cleavage site screening reverse primer SEQ ID NO: 91 GGTCGCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCGCGACGTTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTG No. 0 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 92 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 1 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 93 CGCCGTGGTTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGTA ACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 2 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 94 GCACGCCGTGGTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 3 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 95 GCCGCACGCCGTGGTCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 4 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 96 GCCGAAGCACGCCGTGGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 5 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 97 GCCGAAGCGGCACGCCGTGGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 6 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 98 GCCGAAGCGTCTGCACGCCGTGGTCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 7 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 99 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCGCACGCCGTGGTCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 8 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 100 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTGCACGCCGTGGTGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 9 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 101 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTGCACGCCGTGGTAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 10 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 102 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACGCACGCCGTGGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 11 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 103 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGGCACGCCGTGGTGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 12 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 104 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGCACGCCGTGGTCGCAGCGACCGTA ACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 13 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 105 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGGCACGCCGTGGTAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 14 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 106 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGCACGCCGTGGTGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 15 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 107 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTAACCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGCACGCCGTGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 16 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 108 GCCGAAGCGTCTACCCGTCGTCGTCTGCTGGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 17 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 109 GCCTGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCGGGAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 18 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 110 GCCGAATGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCAGTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 19 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 111 GCCGAAGCGTGGCTGGCAGCGCGTCGCGGTCGTGGCGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 20 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 112 TGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTGGCGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 21 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 113 GCCTGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTGATCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 22 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion forward oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 114 GCCGAATGGGGTGGCCGTTGGGCTCGCAAGAAAGGTACTATTCGCAGCGACCGT AACCGTACTTACAACTTCCCG No. 0 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 115 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 1 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 116 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGAACCACGGCGTGCTTG GCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 2 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 117 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTACCACGGCGTGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 3 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 118 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGACCACGGCGTGCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 4 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 119 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACCACGGCGTGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 5 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 120 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACCACGGCGTGCCGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 6 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 121 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGACCACGGCGTGCAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 7 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 122 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGACCACGGCGTGCGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 8 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 123 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCACCACGGCGTGCACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 9 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 124 GCTGCGATCGCCACTACCACGGCGTGCACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 10 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 125 GCTGCGATCGCCACCACGGCGTGCGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 11 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 126 GCTGCGATCACCACGGCGTGCCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 12 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 127 GCTGCGACCACGGCGTGCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTG GCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 13 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 128 GCTACCACGGCGTGCCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 14 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 129 ACCACGGCGTGCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 15 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 130 ACGGCGTGCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGGTTACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 16 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 131 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCCAGCAGACGACGACGGGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTG GCGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 17 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 132 GCTGCGATCGCCACTCCCGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCAGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 18 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 133 GCTGCGATCGCCACTGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCATTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 19 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 134 GCTGCGATCGCCGCCACGACCGCGACGCGCTGCCAGCCACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 20 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 135 GCTGCGATCGCCAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCACTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 21 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 136 GCTGCGATCAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCAGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC No. 22 RF1 variant OmpT cleavage peptide insertion reverse oligo primer SEQ ID NO: 137 GCTGCGAATAGTACCTTTCTTGCGAGCCCAACGGCCACCCCATTCGGCCTGTTGG CGTTTTGCCATTTCAGCAGC RF1 amplification primer 5His-RF1 SEQ ID NO: 138 CATATGCATCACCATCACCATCACGGTGGTGGCTCTAAGCCTTCTATCGTTGCCA AACTGGAAGCC RF1 amplification primer 3RF1 SEQ ID NO: 139 GTCGACTTATTCCTGCTCGGACAACGCCGCCAG Oligonucleotide-Mediated Allelic Replacement (OMAR) PCR oligo 1opRF1 KR SEQ ID NO: 140 GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCaAGacGcTTtCGACGGGTA GACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC Oligonucleotide-Mediated Allelic Replacement (OMAR) PCR oligo 1opRF1 KRR SEQ ID NO: 141 GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCacgacGcTTtCGACG GGTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC Oligonucleotide-Mediated Allelic Replacement (OMAR) PCR oligo 1opRF1 KRK SEQ ID NO: 142 GGGAAGTTGTAAGTACGGTTACGGTCGCTGCGATCcCCtgaaCCcttacGcTTtCGACGG GTAGACGCTTCGGCCTGTTGGCGTTTTGCC Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR oligo 3KR op-PCR SEQ ID NO: 143 GCG ATC CCC TGA ACC AAG ACG C Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR oligo 3 KRR op-PCR SEQ ID NO: 144 CGATCcCCtgaaCCacgacGc Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR oligo 3KRK op-PCR SEQ ID NO: 145 TGCGATCcCCtgaaCCcttacGc Mismatch Amplification Mutation Assay (MAMA) PCR oligo 5 RF1 op-PCR SEQ ID NO: 146 CGTGACGGGGATAACGAACGCC rolling circle amplification and primer extension sequencing primer T7 SEQ ID NO: 147 TAATACGACTCACTATAGG rolling circle amplification and primer extension sequencing primer T7 term SEQ ID NO: 148 GCTAGTTATTGCTCAGCG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00067_V422 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 149 CGTTGGCAGCAGGGTAATTAGTTCAGCTGCAGCGTTATG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00067 V422 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 150 CATAACGCTGCAGCTGAACTAATTACCCTGCTGCCAACG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00127_S415 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 151 GCAAGCTGACCGTCGATAAATAGCGTTGGCAGCAGGGTAATG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00127_S415 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 152 CATTACCCTGCTGCCAACGCTATTTATCGACGGTCAGCTTGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00128_Q418 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 153 CGATAAAAGCCGTTGGTAGCAGGGTAATGTGTTCAG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00128_Q418 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 154 CTGAACACATTACCCTGCTACCAACGGCTTTTATCG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00114_P343 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 155 GCAAAGCGAAAGGCCAATAGCGTGAACCGCAGGTC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00114_P343 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 156 GACCTGCGGTTCACGCTATTGGCCTTTCGCTTTGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00112_G341 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 157 GACGATCAGCAAAGCGAAATAGCAACCGCGTGAACCGCAG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00112_G341 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 158 CTGCGGTTCACGCGGTTGCTATTTCGCTTTGCTGATCGTC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00102_K320 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 159 GCTGAATGGTAAAGAATACTAGTGCAAAGTGAGCAACAAGG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00102_K320 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 160 CCTTGTTGCTCACTTTGCACTAGTATTCTTTACCATTCAGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00066_F404 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 161 CTGGACAGCGACGGTAGCTAGTTTCTGTATAGCAAGCTG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00066_F404 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 162 CAGCTTGCTATACAGAAACTAGCTACCGTCGCTGTCCAG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00113_Q342 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 163 GCAAAGCGAAAGGCTAGCCGCGTGAACCGCAG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00113_Q342 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 164 CTGCGGTTCACGCGGCTAGCCTTTCGCTTTGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00096_T299 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 165 GTGAGGAACAATACAATAGCTAGTATCGCGTAGTGAGCGTGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00096_T299 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 166 GCACGCTCACTACGCGATACTAGCTATTGTATTGTTCCTCAC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00120_Y373 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 167 GGTGAAGGGCTTTTAGCCGAGCGACATCGC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00120_Y373 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 168 GCGATGTCGCTCGGCTAAAAGCCCTTCACC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00094_N297 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 169 CGCGTGAGGAACAATACTAGAGCACGTATCGCGTAGTG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00094_N297 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 170 CACTACGCGATACGTGCTCTAGTATTGTTCCTCACGCG Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00125_F405 sense oligo SEQ ID NO: 171 GACAGCGACGGTAGCTTCTAGCTGTATAGCAAGCTGAC Site directed mutagenesis variant SP-00125_F405 antisense oligo SEQ ID NO: 172 GTCAGCTTGCTATACAGCTAGAAGCTACCGTCGCTGTC 

1.-31. (canceled)
 32. A mutant Releasing Factor 1 protein (RF1) comprising a cleavage site for an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1) located within a switch loop region corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of SEQ ID NO:1.
 33. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 32, wherein the mutant RF1 comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 95% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, and has activity to recognize a stop codon in an mRNA sequence and terminate translation.
 34. A bacterial cell comprising both an OmpT1 and the RF1 protein of claim
 32. 35. A nucleic acid encoding the mutant RF1 protein of claim
 32. 36. A bacterial cell comprising the nucleic acid of claim 35, wherein the nucleic acid is incorporated into the genome of the bacterial cell.
 37. A bacterial cell extract comprising the mutant RF1 protein of claim
 32. 38. A cell free synthesis system comprising in a single reaction mixture: i) components from a bacterial lysate sufficient to translate a nucleic acid template encoding a protein; ii) a nucleic acid template encoding a protein of interest and having at least one amber codon; iii) tRNA complementary to the amber codon; and iv) the mutant RF1 protein of claim
 32. 39. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 32, wherein the cleavage activity by OmpT1 is greater than 50% of the wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) after 30 minutes at 30° C. when the modified and wild-type proteins are present at a similar concentration in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1.
 40. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 32, where the switch loop region comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group of sequences consisting of AAR, AARG (SEQ ID NO:47), WLAARRGRG (SEQ ID NO:48), and WGGRWARKKGTI (SEQ ID NO:49).
 41. A mutant Releasing Factor 1 protein (RF1) comprising a cleavage site for an Outer Membrane Protein T1 (OmpT1) located within a switch loop region corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of SEQ ID NO:1, where the switch loop region comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group of sequences consisting of AAR, AARG (SEQ ID NO:47), WLAARRGRG (SEQ ID NO:48), and WGGRWARKKGTI (SEQ ID NO:49).
 42. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 41, wherein the amino acid sequence corresponding to amino acids 287-304 of SEQ ID NO:1 comprises an amino acid sequence selected from the group of sequences consisting of: QARRGSTRRNLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 26) QQARRGTRRNLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 27) QQAARRGRRNLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 28) QQAEARRGRNLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 29) QQAEAARRGNLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 30) QQAEASARRGLLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 31) QQAEASTARRGLGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 32) QQAEASTRARRGGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 33) QQAEASTRRARRGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 34) QQAEASTRRNARRGGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 35) QQAEASTRRNLARRGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 36) QQAEASTRRNLLARRGRS; (SEQ ID NO: 37) QQAEASTRRNLLGARRGS; (SEQ ID NO: 38) QQAEASTRRNLLGSARRG; (SEQ ID NO: 39) QQAEASTRRNLLGSGARR (SEQ ID NO: 40) QQAWLAARRGRGGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 41) QQAEWLAARRGRGSGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 42) QQAEAWLAARRGRGGDRS (SEQ ID NO: 43) QQWGGRWARKKGTIGDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 44) QQAWGGRWARKKGTIDRS; (SEQ ID NO: 45) and QQAEWGGRWARKKGTIRS. (SEQ ID NO: 46)


43. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 41, wherein the mutant RF1 comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 95% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, and has activity to recognize a stop codon in an mRNA sequence and terminate translation.
 44. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 41, wherein the cleavage activity by OmpT1 is greater than 50% of the wild type RF1 (SEQ ID NO:1) after 30 minutes at 30° C. when the modified and wild-type proteins are present at a similar concentration in a cell-free extract from bacteria expressing OmpT1.
 45. A bacterial cell comprising both an OmpT1 and the RF1 protein of claim
 41. 46. A nucleic acid encoding the mutant RF1 protein of claim
 41. 47. A bacterial cell comprising the nucleic acid of claim 46, wherein the nucleic acid is incorporated into the genome of the bacterial cell.
 48. A bacterial cell extract comprising the mutant RF1 protein of claim
 41. 49. A cell free synthesis system comprising in a single reaction mixture: i) components from a bacterial lysate sufficient to translate a nucleic acid template encoding a protein; ii) a nucleic acid template encoding a protein of interest and having at least one amber codon; iii) tRNA complementary to the amber codon; and, iv) the mutant RF 1 protein of claim
 41. 50. The cell free synthesis system of claim 38, wherein the reaction mixture further comprises a non-natural amino acid and corresponding amino acid synthetase, the synthetase able to charge the tRNA complimentary to the amber codon with the non-natural amino acid.
 51. The cell free synthesis system of claim 50, wherein the system generates ATP via an active oxidative phosphorylation system.
 52. The mutant RF1 protein of claim 32, wherein the OmpT1 is wild-type OmpT1 or a functional homolog thereof having OmpT1 enzyme activity, or comprises an amino acid sequence having at least 90% sequence identity to the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:3, or specifically binds polyclonal antibodies that bind to OmpT1.
 53. A method for expressing protein in a cell-free synthesis system, comprising: i. combining a nucleic acid template with a bacterial extract comprising an RF1 protein of claim 32 that has been cleaved by OmpT1; and ii. expressing a protein from the nucleic acid template.
 54. A method for preparing a cell free synthesis extract, the method comprising the steps of: i) culturing an OmpT1 positive bacteria comprising the nucleic acid of claim 35 to express the mutant RF1 protein; and ii) lysing the bacteria to create a cell free synthesis extract.
 55. The method of claim 54, wherein the OmpT1 positive bacteria is Escherichia coli.
 56. A method for expressing a protein of interest in a bacterial cell-free synthesis system, comprising: i. combining a nucleic acid template encoding a protein of interest with a bacterial cell free synthesis extract to produce a bacterial cell-free synthesis system, wherein the bacterial cell free synthesis extract comprises the mutant RF1 protein of claim 32 and an OmpT1; ii. allowing the mutant RF1 protein to be cleaved by the OmpT1; and iii. expressing the protein of interest from the nucleic acid template. 